A  Concise  History 
of  New  Mexico 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/concisehistoryofOOprinrich 


A  Concise  History 
of  New  Mexico 


BY 

L.  BRADFORD  PRINCE,  LL.D. 

President  of  the    Historical   Society   of   New    Mexico:    Hon.    Member  of  the 

American  Numismatic  and  Archaeological  Society :  Hon.  Member  of  the 

Missouri  Historical  Society;   of  the  Kansas  Historical  Society; 

of  the  Wisconsin    Historical    Society;   Cor.   Member 

of   the    Texas    Historical    Society,    &c,  &c. 


THE  TORCH  PRESS 
CEDAR  RAPIDS,  IOWA 

1912 


COPYRIGHT.   1912.  BY 
L.  BRADFORD  PRINCE 


THE  TORCH    PRESS 

CEDAR    RAPIDS 

IOWA 


CIFfC  COAST 
HISTORY 


CONTENTS 

Preface '.        '      ^^ 

Chapter  I 

New  Mexico  in  General 1«^ 

Name •        •        .13 

Boundaries 14 

Capital 1'^ 

Population •        •        .18 

Chapter  II 
The  Aborigines 20 

Chapter  III 
The  Pueblo  Indians 30 

Chapter  IV 
Cabeza  de  Yaca 52 

Chapter  V 
Friar  Marcos  de  Niza 58 

Chapter  VI 
Coronado 66 

Chapter  VII 

Friar  Ruiz  and  Espejo 79 

Mission  of  Agustin  Ruiz 79 

Espejo 's  Expedition 81 

Chapter  VIII 
Attempts  at  Colonization  — 1585-1598  .        .         .86 

Castano  de  Sosa 87 

bonilla  and  humana 90 

Chapter  IX 
The  Conquest  by  Onate 92 

Chapter  X 
Spanish  Occupation  — 1598-1680 100 

Chapter  XI 
The  Pueblo  Rea^olution 110 

Chapter  XII 
The  Re-conquest 117 


\y 


8  CONTENTS 

Chapter  XIII 
The  Spanish  Era  — 1696-1822       .        .        .        .        .121 

Chapter  XIV 
The  Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Pike  — 1806        .        .     132 

Chapter  XV 
Mexican  Government  — 1821-1846  ....     148 

Rulers .        .        .    150 

Pioneers  153 

Texan  Santa  Fe  Expedition 155 

Chapter  XVI 
The  Insurrection  of  1837 159 

Chapter  XVII 
The  Santa  Fe  Trail .     164 

Chapter  XVIII 
Spanish  and  Mexican'  Governors  ....     175 

Chapter  XIX 
The  American  Occupation .     178 

Chapter  XX 
U.  S.  Provisional  Government  —  1846-1851  .        .     187 

Chapter  XXI 
The  Territorial  Period  — 1851-1912      .        .        .        .191 

Chapter  XXII 
The  Texan  Invasion  of  1862 220 

Chapter  XXIII 
Struggle  for  Statehood 227 

Chapter  XXIV 

Churches .        .        .     244 

Schools 252 

Newspapers 258 

Chapter  XXV 
United  States  Officials  .        .        .        .        .        .        .    263 

Governors .        .        .     263 

Secretaries 264 

Chief  Justices  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .    265 

Delegates  in  Congress    .        .        .        .        .        .        .     266 

Chapter  XXVI 

State  Organization,  1912 268 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRx\TIONS 


The  Capitol  at  Santa  Fe  . 

Ruins  of  Church  at  Cuara 

Ruins  of  Church  at  Tabira  (Gran  Quivira) 

Part  of  Church  at  Tabira  (Gran  Quivira) 

Stone  Lions  of  Cochiti  —  Ground  Plan    . 

Stone  Lions  of  Cochiti 

Pueblo  Indian  Idols 

Pueblo  Indian  Idols 

Pueblo  Indian  Idols 

Pueblo  Indian  Idols 

Pueblo  Indian  Dance 

Oldest  House  in  Santa  Fe  (before  altered) 

The  Governor's  Palace,  Santa  Fe 

The  Plaza,  Santa  Fe  .... 

Ground  Plan  of  Old  Fort  Marcy,  Santa  Fe 

Ballot  at  First  State  Election,  1850 

The  Ben  Hur  Room  in  Palace 

Signing  the  Enabling  Act 

Pens  which  Signed  Enabling  Act 

U.  S.  Indian  School,  Santa  Fe 

First  Page  of  Statehood  Enabling  Act 


Frontispi 


lece 

24 

26 

27 

31 

33 

37 

39 

41 

43 

49 

103 

122 

149 

181 

189 

201 

239 

241 

259 

267 


PEEFACE 

After  the  publication  of  the  Historical  Sketches  of  New  Mex- 
ico in  1883,  and  especially  after  the  burning  of  the  plates  of  that 
book  at  Kansas  City,  two  pieces  of  historical  work  were  con- 
stantly pressed  upon  me :  First,  the  writing  of  an  enlarged  and 
revised  History  of  New  Mexico,  which  should  include  all  of  the 
important  matter  which  has  been  made  available  since  1883 ;  and 
second,  the  preparation  of  a  condensed  volume  which  would  con- 
tain the  essential  facts  in  comparatively  small  space,  so  as  to  be 
available  for  the  general  reader  and  for  use  in  the  schools  of 
New  Mexico, 

For  the  first  of  these  purposes,  a  large  amount  of  material, 
much  of  it  from  original  sources  and  the  statements  of  eye  wit- 
nesses as  to  recent  events,  was  accumulated ;  but  the  opportunity 
for  putting  it  in  proper  form  never  presented  itself,  and  the 
publication  of  the  admirable  histories  by  Colonel  Twitchell  and 
Hon.  B.  M.  Read  has  now  made  such  a  work  unnecessary.  The 
new  State,  as  well  as  the  distinguished  authors,  is  to  be  congrat- 
ulated on  the  successful  completion  of  these  works,  and  on  the 
amount  of  valuable  and  interesting  information  thus  presented 
to  the  New^  Mexican  people. 

The  condensation  and  revision  of  the  matter  in  the  Historical 
Sketches,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  second  work  above  referred 
to,  was  done  to  quite  an  extent  over  twenty  years  ago,  but  was 
interrupted  by  other  matters  that  required  exclusive  attention ; 
and  about  ten  years  since  was  almost  completed,  but  again  was 
laid  aside  to  meet  other  engagements.  Meantime,  the  acquisition 
by  the  New  Mexico  Historical  Society  of  rare  literary  treasures, 
and  especially  of  the  remarkable  original  documents  which  it  had 
the  good  fortune  to  secure,  gave  an  opportunity  for  correction 


12  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  revision  that  had  been  impossible  before;  so  that  I  do  not 
regret  the  long  delay  in  accomplishing  the  design. 

The  end  of  the  territorial  era  by  the  acquisition  of  statehood 
seemed  to  present  the  proper  opportunity  for  the  completion  of 
this  "work;  and  the  recent  requirements  of  law  relative  to  the 
teaching  of  New  Mexican  history  in  the  public  schools  has  caused 
a  wide-spread  request  for  immediate  action.  The  result  is  the 
little  volume  now  presented. 

It  aims  to  be  simply  what  its  name  implies,  a  "concise" 
History  of  New  Mexico.  Many  a  time  in  its  preparation,  when 
some  subject  of  peculiar  importance,  or  as  to  which  there  has 
been  some  controversy,  has  been  involved,  the  temptation  has 
been  great  to  go  into  details  which  could  scarcely  fail  to  be  inter- 
esting ;  but  that  temptation  has  always  been  resisted  in  order  not 
to  exceed  the  prescribed,  brevity  of  treatment. 

The  one  idea  that  has  been  uppermost  is,  that,  whatever  is 
omitted,  the  facts  that  are  stated  shall  he  absolutely  accurate; 
so  that  at  any  rate  no  false  impressions  may  be  given  nor  current 
mistakes  perpetuated. 

If  I  have  succeeded  in  this  I  shall  be  fully  content.  But  as 
nothing  human  is  infallible,  I  will  welcome  any  suggestions  of 
correction ;  and  be  glad  to  make  them  useful  in  perfecting  future 
editions. 

L.  Bradford  Prince 
Santa  Fe,  August  15,  1912 


CHAPTER  I     . 

Neiv  Mexico  in  General  —  Nmne,  Boundaries, 
Population,  Capital 

NAME 

The  name  of  New  Mexico  is  the  oldest  in  the  United  States 
except  that  of  Florida. 

The  latter,  as  is  well-known,  was  given  to  the  peninsula  by 
Ponce  de  Leon  on  his  discovery  of  its  shores  in  1512 ;  some  con- 
sider it  was  so  named  on  account  of  the  discovery  being  made  on 
Easter  Day,  called  by  the  Spaniards  ''Pascua  Florida;"  and 
others,  that  it  was  to  designate  it  as  the  ' '  Land  of  Flowers, ' '  its 
exuberant  beauty  in  that  respect  being  very  striking  on  the  bright 
spring  day  when  the  sight  of  its  vegetation  gladdened  the  eyes 
of  the  Spanish  explorers. 

The  name  of  New  Mexico  first  appears  in  the  narrative  of 
Antonio  de  Espejo,  in  1583,  having  been  given  to  the  fifteen 
provinces  which  he  discovered  on  his  expedition,  as  we  are  told 
by  the  historian  Gonzales  de  Mendoza,  "because  it  is  similar  in 
many  things  to  the  other  Mexico  already  discovered. ' '  The  nar- 
rative of  Espejo 's  exploration  reached  Europe  and  was  published 
in  Madrid  in  1586,  and  was  found  to  be  of  such  interest  that  it 
was  speedily  translated  into  French  by  Luc  de  la  Porte,  and 
printed  in  Paris  but  one  year  later,  and  also  appeared  in  Italian 
and  English;  so  that  the  description  of  the  newly  found  region 
in  the  interior  of  North  America  was  soon  known  to  all  the 
world.  The  name.  New  Mexico,  immediately  received  the  ratifi- 
cation of  universal  adoption,  and  was  continuously  applied  to 
all  the  portions  of  the  continent  north  of  Old  Mexico,  for  hun- 
dreds of  years. 


14  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

BOUNDAKIES 

The  boundaries  and  dimensions  of  New  Mexico,  from  the  first, 
were  very  indefinite.  On  the  west  it  reached  to  the  South  Sea, 
as  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  then  called,  and  on  the  north  there  was 
no  claimant  to  prevent  its  extension  to  the  Arctic  regions.  On 
the  south,  it  began  where  the  northern  provinces  of  Mexico  — 
New  Galicia  and  New  Biscay  —  ended,  but  with  no  established 
boundary;  and  on  the  east,  for  over  a  century,  it  divided  the 
country  with  Florida,  which  occupied  all  the  region  commencing 
at  the  Atlantic  and  extending  westward  beyond  the  Mississippi. 

After  settlements  were  made  along  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
valley  of  that  river  became  kno^vn  as  Louisiana,  there  were  three 
divisions  in  the  midst  of  the  continent,  instead  of  two,  Louisiana 
coming  between  Florida  and  New  Mexico ;  and  after  another  in- 
terval, the  Pacific  coast  separated  itself  and  was  distinguished  as 
California.  The  changes  can  be  traced  better  by  maps  printed 
from  time  to  time,  than  from  any  documents. 

On  Samson's  map,  dated  1656,  of  Le  Nouveau  Mexique  et  la 
Floride,  New  Mexico  extends  north  indefinitely,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Canada  or  New  France,  and  by  Florida;  being 
separated  from  the  latter  by  an  imaginary  range  of  mountains, 
represented  as  running  north  and  south  about  200  miles  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  which  is  called  on  this  map,  "Rio  de  Espiritu 
Santo."  In  the  opposite  direction  New  Mexico  extends  west  to 
the  South  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  California,  here  named  ''Mar 
Vermeio. ' ' 

Forty-three  years  later,  on  Sauerman's  map  of  North  Amer- 
ica, published  at  Bremen,  in  1699,  Nouveau  Mexique  extends 
from  the  Gulf  of  California  (Mer  Rouge)  to  the  Mississippi 
(Grand  Fleuve  Meschasipi)  ;  Florida  ending  at  that  river.  On 
this  map,  Santa  Fe  is  represented  as  by  far  the  most  prominent 
place  on  the  continent,  if  we  can  judge  by  the  size  of  type  in 
which  its  name  appears. 

A  few  years  after,  De  I'lsle's  map,  called  Carte  de  Mexique  et 
de  la  FloHde,  published  in  1703,  continues  to  represent  New  Mex- 
ico and  Florida  as  dividing  the  width  of  the  continent  between 


NEW  MEXICO  IN  GENERAL  15 

them;  but  the  dividing  line  is  pushed  much  farther  westward 
than  by  Sauerman,  as  it  runs  up  the  Rio  Grande  and  an  easterly- 
branch,  possibly  intended  for  the  Pecos. 

These  three  maps,  printed  before  the  existence  of  Louisiana, 
show  how  entirely  indefinite  the  eastern  boundary  was ;  in  fact, 
the  whole  interior  of  the  continent  was  occupied  solely  by  In- 
dians, so  that  any  claims  to  ownership  were  purely  theoretical. 

Passing  on  more  than  half  a  century,  we  find  a  radical  change 
made  by  the  introduction  of  Louisiana.  This  is  shown  on 
Bonne's  map  of  New  Spain,  published  at  Paris  in  1771,  where 
Florida  occupies  the  eastern  division,  Louisiana  includes  the 
whole  Mississippi  Valley  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  New 
Mexico  takes  the  remainder  of  the  continent  to  the  Pacific.  The 
division  line  between  New  Mexico  and  Louisiana  runs  north- 
westerly from  a  point  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Sabine.  It  is  noticeable  that  at  that  time,  the  Rio  Grande  is 
called  the  "Riviere  du  Nord  ou  de  Nouveau  Mexique." 

The  English  maps  of  Eman  Bowen,  published  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  18th  century,  show  this  same  three-fold  division.  But 
the  boundary  between  New  Mexico  and  Louisiana  is  placed  east 
of  the  Rio  Grande  (''North  River")  and  the  Pecos,  and  west  of 
the  Colorado  River  of  Texas. 

Dutch  and  Italian  maps  of  a  somewhat  later  date,  the  former 
called  Kaart  van  Nieuw  Mexiko,  1774,  and  the  latter,  of  Nuovo 
Messico,  being  published  by  Zatta,  at  Venice,  in  1785,  both  give 
substantially  the  same  boundary'-  between  Louisiana  and  New 
Mexico  as  on  Bonne 's  map ;  and  down  to  the  time  of  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana  by  the  United  States,  in  1803,  the  line  was  far  from 
being  so  definitely  established  as  to  be  beyond  dispute. 

After  the  independence  of  Mexico,  by  the  treaty  of  January 
12,  1828,  between  the  two  republics,  the  hundredth  degree  of 
longitude  became  the  eastern  boundary  of  New  Mexico,  and  the 
Nepesta  or  Arkansas  River  its  limit  on  the  north. 

To  add  to  the  confusion,  Texas,  when  it  declared  its  indepen- 
dence, claimed  to  own  all  the  territory  east  of  the  Rio  Grande;  a 
claim  utterly  without  foundation,  and  absurd  when  it  is  re- 


16  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

membered  that  it  would  have  taken  Santa  Fe,  which  during 
almost  two  and  a  half  centuries  had  been  the  capital  of  New 
Mexico,  out  of  the  country  of  which  it  was  the  political  centre ; 
but,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  various  efforts  were  made  to  en- 
force the  claim. 

When  General  Kearny  occupied  Santa  Fe,  in  August,  1846,  he 
proclaimed  that  ''as  he  had  taken  possession  of  Santa  Fe,  the 
Capital  of  the  Department  of  New  Mexico,  he  now  announces  his 
intention  to  hold  the  Department,  with  its  original  boundaries,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Del  Norte,  as  a  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
under  the  name  of  the  Territorj^  of  New  Mexico. ' ' 

By  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  all  of  New  Mexico  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  on  the  final  ratification  of  that 
treaty,  on  May  30,  1848,  it  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can Republic.  While  its  southern  boundary  was  definitely  fixed 
by  the  treaty,  in  other  directions  its  extent  was  left  indefinite; 
and  this  condition  continued  until  the  organization  by  Congress 
of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  by  the  Act  of  September  9,  1850, 
with  boundaries  which  appear  as  follows  in  the  law:  "Begin- 
ning at  a  point  in  the  Colorado  River  where  the  boundary-line 
with  the  Republic  of  Mexico  crosses  the  same ;  thence  eastwardly 
with  that  boundary-line  to  the  Rio  Grande ;  thence  following  the 
main  channel  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  parallel  of  the  thirty- 
second  degree  of  north  latitude ;  thence  east  with  that  degree  to 
its  intersection  with  the  one  hundred  and  third  degree  of  longi- 
tude west  of  Greenwich ;  thence  north  with  that  degree  of  longi- 
tude to  the  parallel  of  thirty-eighth  degree  of  north  latitude; 
thence  west  with  said  parallel  to  the  sumrndt  of  Sierra  Mad  re; 
thence  south  with  the  crest  of  those  mountains  to  the  thirty- 
seventh  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  thence  west  with  that  parallel 
to  its  intersection  with  the  boundary-line  of  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia; thence  with  such  boundary-line  to  the  place  of  begin- 
ning. ' ' 

At  the  same  time,  the  northwesterly  portion  of  what  had  here- 
tofore been  New  Mexico  was  made  into  the  Territory  of  Utah. 

But  New  Mexico  was  to  undergo  manj^  changes  of  area,  both 
gains  and  losses,  before  it  became  a  state,  notwithstanding  the 
language  of  the  Act  of  1850. 


NEW  MEXICO  IN  GENERAL  17 

On  December  30,  1853,  the  Gadsden  Purchase  treaty  wias 
signed,  by  which  the  United  States  bought  from  Mexico  a  long 
strip  of  territory,  extending  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Gila, 
for  ten  million  dollars ;  and  by  Act  of  Congress  of  August  4,  1854, 
this  was  added  to  New  Mexico. 

In  1859  the  people  of  southern  New  Mexico,  including  the 
Mesilla  Valley  and  the  settlements  in  the  vicinity  of  Tucson,  ap- 
plied to  Congress  to  form  a  new  territory  out  of  their  section  of 
New  Mexico,  to  be  called  Arizona.  No  congressional  action  was 
taken,  but  the  next  legislature,  by  Act  approved  February  1, 1860, 
organized  a  county  of  Arizona  consisting  of  all  of  Dofia  Ana 
county  west  of  "a  point  one  mile  distant  eastwardly  from  the 
Overland  Mail  Station  at  Apache  Canon,"  with  its  county  seat  at 
Tubac.  In  1863,  Congress  established  the  Territory  of  Arizona, 
consisting  of  all  of  New  Mexico  west  of  the  109th  meridian,  and 
on  December  29th  of  that  year,  the  new  territory  was  officially 
organized  at  Navajo  Springs. 

This  reduced  the  area  of  New  Mexico  almost  one-half,  and  it 
was  further  curtailed  a  few  years  later,  when,  by  the  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  March  2,  1867,  all  that  portion  of  the  territory  north  of 
the  37th  parallel  of  latitude  was  attached  to  Colorado.  This  left 
it  as  it  still  exists,  with  an  average  width  of  335  miles,  a  length 
on  its  eastern  boundary  of  345  miles,  and  on  the  western  boundary 
of  390;  and  with  a  total  area  of  121,469  square  miles. 

CAPITAL 

For  fully  three  centuries  the  city  of  Santa  Fe  has  been  the 
capital  of  New  Mexico.  For  seven  years  after  the  first  coloniza- 
tion, from  1598-1605,  the  seat  of  the  new  government  was  at  San 
Gabriel,  at  the  junction  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Chama;  but 
it  was  then  removed  to  Santa  Fe,  where  it  has  ever  since  re- 
mained. 

Among  all  the  capitals  of  the  United  States,  Santa  Fe  stands 
unique.  For  antiquity  and  continuity  it  is  the  acknowledged 
head,  counting  many  more  years  than  Boston,  which  is  its  near- 
est rival.  It  is  not  only  the  oldest  capital  in  the  United  States, 
but  with  one  exception  the  oldest  in  all  America ;  and  it  antedates 


18  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

by  many  years  the  capitals  of  the  two  most  powerful  empires  of 
continental  Europe,  Germany  and  Russia. 

POPULATION 

In  the  population  of  New  Mexico,  the  increase  for  a  long  time 
was  very  slow,  and  the  figures  of  the  early  enumerations  may  not 
be  entirely  exact. 

By  a  census  of  1760,  the  Spanish  population  was  then  7,666, 
and  the  Pueblo  Indian  9,104. 

In  1793,  the  Spaniards  had  increased  to  16,156  and  the  Indians 
were  returned  at  9,275. 

A  census  was  taken  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers  in  1796  which 
showed  a  population  of  14,167  whites  and  9,453  Indians.  For 
some  reason  the  city  of  Santa  Fe  is  omitted  in  the  enumerations 
made  by  the  Franciscans  and  we  should  therefore  add  the  popu- 
lation of  the  capital,  which  at  that  time  was  3,795,  to  the  number 
of  Spaniards,  making  a  total  of  17,962.  A  similar  census  was 
taken  only  two  years  later,  and  of  this  Governor  Chacon  made  an 
official  report  in  1799,  showing  a  white  population  of  18,826,  to^ 
gether  with  9,732  Pueblo  Indians.  All  of  these  figures  are  exclu- 
sive of  the  district  of  El  Paso,  although  that  was  then  included 
in  New  Mexico. 

Enumerations  of  population  seem  to  have  been  frequent  in 
those  days,  as  another  census  was  taken  in  1805,  the  report  of 
which  was  made  by  Governor  Alencaster,  under  date  of  November 
20th,  containing  the  following  figures :  Spaniards  —  male  10,390, 
female  10,236,  total  20,626 ;  Pueblo  Indians  —  male  4,094,  female 
4,078,  total  8,182 ;  grand  total  of  population  of  28,798.  In  all  of 
these  cases  the  wild  tribes  of  Indians  are  excluded.  The  report 
of  Governor  Melgares  in  1820  gives  the  Spanish  population  at 
28,436.  In  1821,  Father  Rubi  states  the  number  of  Pueblo  In- 
dians to  be  9,034. 

The  census  reports  under  the  Republic  of  Mexico  made  no  dis- 
tinction of  race,  so  that  only  the  aggregate  can  be  given :  being 
43,433  in  1827,  as  reported  by  Narbona ;  and  55,403  in  1840,  as 
reported  by  Governor  Armijo. 

Since  the  American  occupation,  the  decennial  census  reports 


NEW  MEXICO  IN  GENERAL  19 

give  the  following  figures,  shomng  a  steady  and  fairly  rapid 
increase : 

1850  61,547 

1860  80,567 

1870   91,874 

1880  119,565 

1890   153,593 

1900 195,310 

1910   327,301 

The  population  by  the  last  census,  in  1910,  is  divided  among 
the  counties  as  they  then  existed  as  follows : 

Bernalillo    23,606 

Chaves  16,850 

Colfax   16,460 

Curry 11,443 

Dona  Ana 12,893 

Eddy   : 12,400 

Grant 14,813 

Guadalupe    10,927 

Lincoln    7,822 

Luna 3,913 

McKinley    12,963 

Mora    12,611 

Otero   7,069 

Quay 14,912 

Rio  Arriba  16,624 

Roosevelt 12,064 

San  Juan 8,504 

San  Miguel 22,930 

Sandoval  8,579 

Santa  Fe 14,770 

Sierra 3,536 

Socorro    14,761 

Taos 12,008 

Torrance   10,119 

UnioA 11,404 

Valencia    13,320 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Aborigines 

The  history  of  New  Mexico  naturally  falls  into  three  great  di- 
visions, representing  not  only  distinct  epochs,  but  different  na- 
tionalities and  forms  of  civilization  —  the  Aboriginal  and  Pueblo, 
the  Spanish  and  Mexican,  and  the  American. 

While  these  are  absolutely  distinct,  yet  it  adds  a  special  inter- 
est to  present  travel  in  the  territory,  that  all  three  epochs  are 
still  represented  by  existing  villages  and  people ;  so  the  observer 
may  in  a  single  day  visit  an  Indian  pueblo  exhibiting  in  un- 
changed form  the  customs  of  the  intelligent  natives  of  three  and 
a  half  centuries  ago ;  a  Mexican  town,  where  the  architecture,  the 
language  and  the  habits  of  the  people  differ  in  no  material  respect 
from  those  which  were  brought  from  Spain  in  the  days  of  Colum- 
bus, Cortez,  and  Coronado :  and  an  American  city  or  village,  full 
of  the  nervous  energy  and  the  well-known  characteristics  of  mod- 
ern western  life. 

In  considering,  firstly,  the  history  of  the  prehistoric  aborigines 
and  of  the  Pueblo  Indians,  we  have  but  few  certain  land-marks 
to  serve  as  guides.  They  possessed  no  written  records,  and  conse- 
quently we  have  to  depend  on  their  own  traditions,  often  vague 
and  uncertain,  or  on  the  narratives  of  the  first  Europeans  who 
visited  their  country,  for  what  may  be  known  of  the  people,  their 
lives,  and  their  customs.  Fortunately,  these  are  sometimes  sup- 
plemented by  the  histories  and  chronologies  found  among  the 
Aztecs  of  Mexico,  which  no  careful  student  can  fail  to  connect 
with  the  peaceable,  industrious,  and  thrifty  people  found  living 
in  cities  of  many-storied  houses,  in  the  midst  of  the  wild,  savage, 
and  nomadic  tribes  which  occupied  the  mountains  and  the  plains 
in  every  direction  around  them. 


THE  ABOEIGINES  21 

Before  taking  up  the  thread  of  written  history,  which  begins 
with  the  arrival  of  the  first  Europeans,  we  must  briefly  consider 
the  people  who,  for  long  centuries  before,  had  inhabited  the  coun- 
try, and  whose  descendants  still  form  one  of  the  most  interesting 
portions  of  its  population. 

New  Mexico  was  far  from  being  a  new  or  unknown  land  when 
it  was  first  seen  by  Spanish  eyes.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  figures 
given  by  the  narrators  are  to  be  taken  as  literally  connect,  it  con- 
tained more  people  then  than  it  does  at  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century ;  and  whether  this  was  true  or  not  in  the  times 
of  Coronado  and  Espejo,  the  vast  number  of  ruins  which  are 
wide-spread  over  the  territory'',  many  of  them  in  regions  where 
now  neither  food  nor  water  exists  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  sus- 
tain a  twentieth  part  of  those  who  must  have  lived  in  the  great 
buildings  of  the  past,  is  evidence  that  at  some  period  of  the  olden 
time  —  just  when  we  may  never  know  —  a  vast  multitude  of 
human  beings  found  their  homes,  and  passed  their  lives,  in  the 
valleys  and  on  the  mesas  of  what  is  now  New  Mexico. 

Unfortunately  for  the  historian,  they  possessed  no  written  lan- 
guage, and  no  system  of  hieroglyphics  to  perpetuate  the  record  of 
events.  In  an  interesting  and  suggestive  speech  made  by  the 
governor  of  the  Pueblo  of  Zuiii,  in  Santa  Fe,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  great  ' '  Tertio-Millenial "  historical  pageant  of  1883,  his 
opening  words  were  very  significant,  in  this  connection.  He  said : 
^'The  Great  Spirit  has. given  to  his  children  of  different  races  and 
colors  various  gifts ;  all  of  great  value,  but  each  diverse  from  the 
other.  To  his  white  children  he  has  given  the  great  gift  of  hand- 
ing down  knowledge  from  one  generation  to  another  by  the  means 
of  marks  or  letters ;  by  which,  centuries  after  they  are  inscribed, 
the  new  people  may  understand  what  is  thus  told  them  by  those 
long  passed  away,  of  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors  and  the  great 
events  of  by-gone  days.  To  his  red  children  he  did  not  give  this 
good  gift.  But  he  gave  them  another  in  its  place.  Of  his  father- 
ly affection  and  all-knowing  care,  he  gave  them  Great  Memories, 
of  unfailing  power;  so  that  the  story  of  the  past,  handed  down 
from  old  to  young,  and  by  those  young  receivers,  when  in  their 


22  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

turn  grown  old,  repeated  to  the  new  youth  that  may  arise,  is 
carried  down,  unchanged  and  un-diminished,  from  generation  to 
generation. ' ' 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  vast  amount  of  legendary  lore 
is  thus  orally  transmitted;  being  taught  with  utmost  care,  and 
jealously  guarded  from  accidental  change  or  the  chance  of  loss 
through  death,  by  being  held  by  three  men  —  a  kind  of  three-fold 
chain  —  who  communicate  it,  word  for  word,  to  their  successors, 
and  that  thus  it  is  carried,  intact,  like  a  Masonic  ritual,  from  age 
to  age. 

If  the  matter  thus  carefully  transmitted  was  mainly  historic, 
we  might  have  a  good  substitute  for  the  written  book ;  but  it  is 
mostly  mythological  and  ceremonial,  and  far  too  fanciful  for 
prosaic  historical  use.  No  doubt  historic  facts  are  embedded  in 
the  traditions  which  are  thus  perpetuated,  but  too  obscurely  to 
be  of  much  value,  except  in  rare  instances.  The  intensely  religi- 
ous nature  of  the  Pueblo  Indian,  and  his  imaginative  mind,  bring 
the  supernatural  into  such  close  relation  with  every  action  in  life, 
that  the  events  of  history  become  mere  incidents  in  the  dealings  of 
the  higher  powers  with  man  and  beast,  and  so  are  almost  lost 
sight  of  in  the  superior  importance  of  the  mythology  which  en- 
velopes them. 

For  the  few  facts  that  can  be  learned,  therefore,  of  conditions 
that  existed  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  we  have  to  de- 
pend most  largely  on  what  may  be  gleaned  from  the  records  which 
were  preserved  among  the  more  cultivated  people  to  the  south,  in 
the  land  of  Montezuma.  Without  going  into  detail,  a  few  leading 
facts  are  of  interest. 

The  people  found  by  Cortez  in  the  land  then  called  Anahuac, 
and  which  is  now  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  had  come  thither  by  a 
succession  of  migrations,  all  of  which  were  from  the  north  and 
northwest. 

The  first  of  these,  of  which  there  is  any  distinct  knowledge,  was 
that  of  the  Toltecs.  They  are  said  to  have  left  their  original 
home  in  the  far  northwest,  called  Huehuetlapallan,  in  the  year 
1  Tecpatl,  which  Clavigero  considers  equivalent  to  the  year  596 


THE  ABORIGINES  23 

of  our  era.  They  traveled  leisurely,  remaining  sometimes  for 
years  in  a  locality  which  appeared  to  provide  amply  for  their 
subsistence  and  suited  their  fancy  and  then  marching  rapidly  for- 
ward, in  the  spirit  of  unrest  which  actuates  all  national  migra- 
tions, until  another  favored  spot  attracted  their  attention  and  in- 
vited them  again  to  rest.  Thus  they  proceeded  for  somewhat  over 
a  century,  until  they  arrived  at  a  place  in  the  great  valley  of  Mex- 
ico, which  they  called  Tollantzinco,  about  fifty  miles  east  from 
the  principal  lake,  and  there  they  settled  themselves  and  estab- 
lished their  capital.  A  score  of  years  later  they  moved  a  short 
distance  to  the  westward  and  founded  the  city  of  Tula  or  Tollan, 
which  continued  as  their  central  point  and  seat  of  government 
for  centuries. 

The  date  of  this  migration  is  far  from  certain,  but  within 
moderate  limits  may  be  considered  as  established.  Both  Clav- 
igero  and  Gondra,  who  are  acknowledged  authorities,  fix  the  date 
of  the  arrival  of  the  Toltecs  in  Anahuac,  as  the  year  648 ;  but  the 
former  allows  only  fifty-two  years  as  the  period  occupied  by 
their  migration,  while  Gondra  gives  the  year  544  as  that  on  which 
they  left  their  original  home.  Precision  in  these  dates,  however, 
is  not  of  especial  importance  to  New  Mexico,  the  essential  point 
being  that  the  migration  is  considered  by  all  authorities  to  have 
passed  through  this  territory.  ' 

For  five  centuries  the  Toltecs  controlled  the  land  of  their  adop- 
tion, and  they  are  believed  to  have  been  the  architects  of  the 
great  structures,  the  ruins  of  which  have  been  the  marvel  of 
later  generations  in  central  and  southern  Mexico.  Then,  for  rea- 
sons now  impossible  to  ascertain  —  perhaps  from  famine  or  pesti- 
lence, perhaps  from  a  recurrence  of  the  spirit  of  restlessness  and 
change — ^they  disappeared  towards  the  south;  spreading  over 
Yucatan  and  Central  America,  and  leaving  but  a  meagre  rem- 
nant in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Anahuac. 

The  next  migration  was  that  of  the  Chichimecas,  a  rough  and 
uncivilized  people,  who  also  came  from  the  same  direction  in  Ihe 
north,  where  we  are  told  their  old  home  was  called  Amaquemecan. 
They  had  heard  of  the  land  of  plenty  in  the  south,  and  marched 


Z:       <n 


THE  ABORIGINES  25 

under  Xolotl,  the  brother  of  their  king,  in  search  of  its  luxuriance 
and  riches.  Torquemada  says  that  they  originally  lived  in  caves 
in  the  mountains,  which  tradition  may  be  in  some  ways  connected 
with  the  most  ancient  of  the  cliff  and  cave  dwellings,  whose  re- 
mains still  exist.  The  date  of  their  arrival  in  Mexico  is  fixed  by 
Clavigero  at  the  year  1170. 

They  were  soon  followed,  only  thirty  years  after,  by  th'e 
Acolhuans,  an  intelligent  and  ingenious  people,  who  established 
themselves  at  Tescuco,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  great  Mexi- 
can lake,  where  they  were  found  by  the  Spaniards  when  Cortez 
arrived. 

About  the  same  time,  came  the  end  of  the  long  migration  of 
the  Aztecs,  who  settled  not  far  from  the  last  preceding  comers. 
They  also  came  from  the  northwest,  from  xiztlan,  which  Clav- 
igero asserts  was  a  country  ' '  situated  to  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
California. ' '  The  route  of  their  migration  has  long  been  a  favor- 
ite subject  of  study  to  the  historian  and  the  archaeologist,  and  they 
have  been  aided  to  some  extent  by  the  discovery  of  a  most  interest- 
ing historical  painting  which  hieroglyphically  represents  each  of 
the  places  where  the  Aztecs  sojourned  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time,  during  their  migration.  This  famous  picture  has  been  re- 
produced in  many  forms,  but  the  original  was  painted  on  a  sheet 
of  maguey  paper,  thirty- three  inches  long  by  twenty-one  in  width, 
and  gives  a  graphic  illustration  of  the  wanderings  of  these  inter- 
esting people  from  their  departure  from  Aztlan  until  they  found 
a  final  resting  place  in  Mexico.  It  begins  with  a  representation 
of  a  flood,  in  which  only  one  man  and  one  woman  are  saved,  and 
in  which  a  dove  is  a  prominent  feature;  and  then  traces  the 
journeyings  of  the  people  from  "a  place  of  magpies,"  through 
''a  place  of  grottoes,"  ''a  place  of  the  death's  head,"  "the 
woody  place  of  the  eagle,"  "Chalco,  the  place  of  the  precious 
stone,"  "the  place  of  passage,"  "a  whirl-pool  where  the  river  is 
swallowed,"  etc.,  to  the  final  arrival  at  Chapultepec,  "the  hill  of 
grasshoppers,"  where  they  arrived  in  the  year  1245. 

According  to  the  prevailing  legend,  they  were  to  continue  to 
journey  until  they  should  see  an  eagle  perched  upon  a  cactus, 


26 


HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


holding  a  snake  in  its  mouth;  and  this  sign,  according  to  the 
story,  was  found  near  Chapultepec ;  and  the  place  thus  providen- 
tially designated  was  instantly  recognized,  and  established  as 
their  future  abiding  place  and  their  capital. 

Here,  again,  the  dates  are  somewhat  uncertain:  those  of  the 
commencement  of  the  Aztec  migration   ranging,   according   to 


RUINS  OP   CHURCH  AT   TABIRA    (gRAN   QUJVIRA) 


different  authors,  from  A.  D.  1038  to  A.  D.  1170,  and  of  their 
settlement  in  Mexico,  from  1245  to  1325. 

Most  of  the  authorities  trace  the  route  of  their  pilgrimage  as 
passing  through  Arizona,  so  as  to  make  the  Casa  Grande  one  of 
its  places  of  sojourn ;  but  others  think  that  their  course  was  more 
easterly,  and  that  many  of  the  most  remarkable  ruins  in  New 


THE  ABOEIGINES  27 

Mexico  are  the  results  of  their  residence  there.  However  this 
may  be,  there  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  that  the  people  whom 
Cabeza  de  Vaca,  and  Coronado,  and  Espejo,  found  at  Zuiii,  and 
Moqui,  and  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  living  in  settled  towns 
composed  of  substantial  houses  several  stories  in  height,  cultivat- 
ing the  fields,  raising  cotton  and  corn,  enjoying  an  excellent  form 


PART  OF  CHURCH  AT  TABTRA    (GRAN  QUIVIRA) 

of  government,  and  in  all  respects  entirely  different  from  the 
wild  and  nomadic  tribes  of  the  plains  who  surrounded  them,  were 
the  remains  of  one  or  another  of  these  great  migrations.  It  was 
not  unnatural,  when,  after  years  of  sojourn  in  an  especially  at- 
tractive region,  where  they  had  made  their  homes  and  raised 
their  families  through  at  least  the  cycle  of  a  generation   it  was 


28    .  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

determined  that  the  migration  should  continue  and  the  people 
march  away  to  unknown  lands  in  the  south,  that  a  portion  of  the 
tribe,  satisfied  with  their  surroundings  and  averse  to  this  deser- 
tion of  their  homes,  should  stay;  while  their  more  adventurous 
brethren  proceeded  on  their  way. 

This,  we  think,  accounts  for  the  presence  in  New  Mexico  of  a 
native  people,  entirely  different  from  any  other  which  inhabited 
the  United  States.  Their  characteristics  are  so  strong  and  per- 
sistent that  even  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  surrounding  no- 
madic types  did  not  alter  their  conservative  and  contented  na- 
ture; and  three  centuries  of  connection  with  European  civiliza- 
tion has  made  scarcely  a  change  in  their  habits  and  customs  since 
they  were  first  seen  and  described  by  Castaiieda  and  Espejo. 
This  result  is  interesting  as  well  as  instructive,  for  notwithstand- 
ing the  march  of  the  centuries,  we  can  see  with  our  own  eyes  an 
almost  unchanged  representation  of  the  intelligent,  just,  and 
peaceful  New  Mexican  of  the  time  of  Coronado,  in  the  Pueblo 
Indian  of  today. 

The  ruins,  which  exist  in  such  great  numbers  throughout  New 
Mexico,  still  present  an  unsolved  problem  so  far  as  their  origin 
is  concerned.  Many  of  them,  no  doubt,  are  the  remains  of  build- 
ings deserted  or  abandoned  within  the  historic  period,  and  sim- 
ilar to  Pueblo  Indian  edifices  which  still  exist  and  are  in  actual 
occupation.  But  there  are  others,  so  much  more  extensive  and  of 
such  superior  construction,  that  they  point  to  builders  of  far 
greater  mechanical  skill  and  knowledge.  Such  are  the  remark- 
able structures  which  extend  for  miles  along  the  Chaco  Canon, 
and  some  of  which  are  found  in  the  San  Juan  country. 

So  far  as  stone  structures  are  concerned,  however,  there  is  a 
remarkable  similarity  between  many  of  those  which  were  un- 
doubtedly destroyed  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  and 
others  which  were  built  as  churches  early  in  the  17th  century,  as 
at  Pecos,  Abo,  Cuara,  and  Tabira.  The  massive  walls,  built  of 
comparatively  small,  thin  stones,  seem  to  indicate  a  type  unknown 
elsewhere,  but  which  continues,  practically  unchanged,  from  pre- 
historic times  to  the  existing  era.     A  few  photographs,  showing 


THE  ABORIGINES  29 

the  walls  of  churches  built  by  the  Indians  under  Franciscan  di- 
rection, east  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, are  reproduced  in  order  to  illustrate  this  idea. 

Again,  the  pottery  which  abounds  in  certain  localities,  and 
notably  in  western  Socorro  county,  is  not  only  different  from 
that  produced  in  the  Pueblo  towns  during  the  historic  period 
but  is  very  superior  in  its  ornamentation ;  and  the  mummies  of 
southwestern  Colorado  must  be  considered  as  representing  a  dis- 
tinct people. 

All  this  presents  a  most  interesting  field  for  research,  but  it 
is  beyond  the  purpose  of  this  work ;  and  we  therefore  content  our- 
salves  with  the  suggestion  that  these  differences  may  simply  be 
representative  of  the  successive  migrations  which  age  after  age 
brought  new  and  distinct  peoples  to  inhabit  our  valleys  or  build 
upon  our  mesas,  each  perhaps  in  turn  leaving  a  remnant  to  keep 
up  the  continuity  of  human  occupation  until  the  arrival  of  the 
next  wave  of  immigration. 


CHAPTER  III 

The  Puehlo  Indians 

Turning  now,  from  the  aborigines,  as  they  existed  before  the 
European  discovery,  where  much  is  conjecture  and  uncertain 
tradition,  we  come  to  the  native  people  of  New  Mexico  as  they 
have  existed  in  what  we  may  term  historic  times. 

The  earliest  views  we  have  of  them  are  not  continuous,  but 
rather  like  the  glimpses  of  a  landscape  by  flashes  of  lightning  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night.  We  have  a  momentary  view  as  Mar- 
cos de  Niza  saw  from  afar  the  terraced  houses  and  the  busy  peo- 
ple of  Cibola,  in  1539.  Two  years  pass,  and  the  historians  of 
Coronado's  expedition  give  us  the  first  intelligent  account  of  the 
people  and  the  extent  of  their  territory,  though  naturally  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  soldier,  as  they  appeared  in  1541-42. 
Then  over  a  generation  passes  by  before  we  have  another  glimpse, 
and  the  record  from  the  pen  of  Espejo  —  the  first  narrator  who 
was  interested  in  the  home  life  and  the  religion  of  the  people. 
That  was  in  1583 ;  and  then  again  there  is  silence  and  darkness 
for  fifteen  years,  until  Onate  comes  with  permanent  colonization 
in  1598,  and  the  Indians  become  known  to  us  as  other  nations  are. 

The  brave  captains  of  Coronado's  army  penetrated  westward 
to  the  Caiion  of  the  Colorado,  northward  to  Taos,  eastward  far 
across  the  great  plains,  and  southward  to  the  towns  below  Isleta ; 
Espejo  covered  the  same  ground,  as  well  as  the  lower  Rio  Grande 
valley,  Avith  greater  care  and  patience  of  research  ;  Onate  learned 
to  know  the  people,  not  as  an  invader  or  a  traveler,  but  as  a 
neighbor  and  co-worker.  So,  from  the  narrations  of  the  three, 
we  can  gain  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  native  New  Mexicans  as  they 
existed  before  changed  by  foreign  influence. 

In  the  time  of  Coronado's  expedition,  according     to  the  list 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS 


31 


given  by  Castaiieda,  he  had  knowledge  of  seventy-one  towns  or 
pueblos,  which  he  designates  as  follows :  Cibola,  7  ;  Tusayan,  7 ; 
Acuco,  1 ;  Tihuex,  12 ;  Tutahaco,  8 ;  Quirix,  7 ;  Snowy  Mountains, 
7 ;  Ximena,  3 ;  Cicuyc,  1 ;  Jemez,  7 ;  Aguas  Calientes,  3 ;  Yuque- 
yunque,  6 ;  Valladolid,  called  Braba,  1 ;  Chia,  1. 


3 


-B 


STONE  LIONS  OF  COCHITI 


GROUND  PLAN 


Espejo,  in  liis  description  of  the  country,  forty  years  after- 
ward, reports  about  the  same  number,  though  somewhat  differ- 
ently arranged.  His  list  contains  the  following:  On  the  Rio 
Grande  below  Albuquerque,  10;  Tihuas,  16;  province  east  of  Rio 


32  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Grande,  11;  Quires,  5;  Cunames  (Zia,  etc),  5;  Amies  or  Amejes 
(Jemez),  7;  Acoma,  1;  Cibola,  6;  Hubates,  5;  Tamos,  3;  besides 
some  referred  to  but  without  exact  names  or  numbers. 

After  the  colonization  by  Oiiate  we  have  a  multitude  of  names, 
some  of  which  are  confusing,  because  the  name  of  the  same  saint 
in  certain  cases  is  given  to  different  towns  at  different  times. 
Quite  soon,  however,  the  names  begin  to  appear  more  in  their 
modern  form;  and  we  can  conclude  that  the  number  of  towns 
or  pueblos  was  about  the  same  as  enumerated  in  the  days  of 
Coronado  and  Espejo,  that  is  to  say  from  70  to  75. 

Today  there  exist  but  19  in  all,  18  in  the  Valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  its  tributaries,  and  one  at  Zuiii;  thus  showing  a 
great  diminution  in  number  since  the  advent  of  the  Europeans. 
This  can  be  accounted  for  in  various  ways.  In  the  first  place  it 
was  the  policy  of  the  Spanish  government,  after  the  occupation 
of  the  country,  to  consolidate  the  Indian  population  in  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  villages  or  pueblos,  for  various  rea- 
sons, both  political  and  religious.  By  this  means  they  were  the 
more  easily  watched  and  controlled,  and  at  the  same  time,  by 
grouping  them  around  a  mission  church  in  each  community,  the 
prospect  for  proselyting  was  improved.  Then  came  the  revolu- 
tion of  1680,  and  the  extraordinary  reduction  in  the  Indian  num- 
bers and  power  during  the  brief  period  of  their  control.  Mutual 
jealousies  and  the  struggle  for  subsistence  which  followed  suc- 
cessive failures  of  crops,  caused  almost  constant  wars,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  destruction  or  abandonment  of  many  of  the  pueblos. 
We  have  an  exact  list  in  the  record  of  the  re-conquest  and  subse- 
quent reconstruction  of  the  country,  and  it  differs  very  little 
from  that^which  exists  to-day.  An  official  list,  made  by  Gov- 
ernor Mendoza  in  1742,  gives  the  names  as  follows,  exclusive  of 
the  Moquis: 

"Taos,  Picuries,  San  Juan,  San  Ildefonso,  Santa  Clara,  Po- 
juaque,  Nambe,  and  Tesuque,  north  of  Santa  Fe ;  Pecos  east,  and 
Galisteo  south  of  Santa  Fe ;  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe, 
Santa  Ana,  Zia,  Jemez,  Laguna,  Acoma,  Zuni,  and  Isleta,  south 
or  west  of  Santa  Fe. ' ' 


THP]  PUEBLO  INDIANS 


33 


In  1796  and  1798  the  Franciscan  priests  in  charge  made  re- 
ports of  the  Indian  population,  in  which  the  list  of  pueblos  is 
exactly  similar  to  the  above,  except  that  Galisteo  is  dropped,  and 
Sandia,  Abiquiu,  and  Belen  appear  for  the  first  time.     These 


ST(JNE  LIONS   OP  COCHITI 


are  proper  changes,  as  Galisteo  had  been  abandoned  in  the  mean- 
time and  the  inhabitants  had  retired  to  Santo  Domingo,  where 
many  of  them  had  married;  and  Sandia  had  been  established. 
As  this  is  the  only  instance  of  the  establishment  of  a  new  pueblo 


34  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

in  modern  times,  the  history  of  the  movement  is  worthy  our 
attention.  In  1748,  Friar  Menchero,  the  commissary  gen- 
eral, who  had  been  engaged  in  missionarj^  work  for  six 
years,  wrote  to  the  governor  stating  that  he  had  "converted 
and  gained  over  350  souls  from  here  to  the  Puerco  River,  which 
I  have  brought  from  the  Moqui  pueblos;  bringing  with  me  the 
cacique  of  these  Moqui  pueblos  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
their  pueblo  at  the  place  called  Sandia, ' '  and  he  asked  for  posses- 
sion of  the  land  at  that  point,  "so  as  to  prevent  any  converts 
from  returning  to  apostacy. ' '  Thereupon,  the  governor  acceded 
to  the  request,  and  the  new  pueblo  was  established  in  due  form 
by  the  name  of  ' '  Our  Lady  of  Sorrows  and  Saint  Anthony  of 
Sandia. ' ' 

At  Abiquiu  and  Belen,  the  Indians  were  mingled  with  a  con- 
siderable Spanish  population,  but  the  old  buildings  on  the  hill 
at  the  former  place  are  called  to  this  day  ' '  The  Pueblo ' '  by  the 
people  in  the  vicinity.  As  the  Indians  at  those  two  points  did 
not  receive  grants  of  land  from  the  Spanish  government,  and 
kept  up  no  regular  organization,  they  are  sometimes  included 
and  sometimes  omitted  in  the  enumeration  of  the  pueblos.  The 
Indian  population  as  returned  by  those  two  reports  was  9,453  in 
1796,  and  9,732  in  1798. 

A  few  years  later,  in  1805,  Governor  Alencaster  caused  a  com- 
plete census  to  be  made  of  the  province,  which  resulted  in  show- 
ing a  Spanish  population  of  26,805,  and  8,172  Pueblo  Indians. 
As  this  is  probably  the  most  accurate  that  had  been  obtained 
and  contains  the  full  mission  names  of  the  respective  pueblos,  we 
insert  it  in  full,  as  it  is  both  useful  and  interesting  as  a  basis 
of  comparison  with  lat^r  enumerations: 

San  Geronimo  de  Taos 508 

San  Lforenzo  de  Picuries 250 

San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros 194 

Santo  Tomas  de  Abiquiu 134 

Santa  Clara 186 

San  Ildefonso 175 

San  Francisco  de  Nambe 143 

N.  S.  de  Guadalupe  de  Pojuaque 100 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  35 

San  Diego  de  Tesuque 131 

N.  S.  de  los  Angeles  de  Pecos 104 

San  Buena  Ventura  de  Cochiti 656 

Santo   Domingo »333  . 

San   Felipe 289 

N.  S.  de  los  Dolores  de  Sandia 314 

San  Diego  de  Jemez 264 

N.  S.  de  la  Asumpcion  de  Zia 254 

Santa  Ana 450 

San  Agustin  del  Isleta 419 

N.   S.  de  Belen 107 

San  Estevan  de  Acoma 731 

San  Josef  de  La  Laguna 940 

N.  S.  de  Guadalupe  de  Zuni 1470 

From  the  names  of  the  patron  saints  to  whom  the  Indian  towns 
were  dedicated  by  the  Spanish  authorities  can  also  be  ascertained 
the  festival  day  of  each  of  the  pueblos  mentioned. 

The  first  report  by  an  American  official  —  that  of  Lieutenant 
Whipple,  U.  S.  A.  —  contains  the  same  list,  with  the  addition  of 
Cuyamangue  and  Chilili;  but  as  both  of  those  pueblos  ceased  to 
exist  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  before,  during  the  revolu- 
tion of  1680-93,  their  insertion  was  a  mistake. 

The  only  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  hundred  years 
since  Governor  Alencaster's  census  have  been  in  the  dropping  of 
Abiquiu  and  Belen  as  distinct  pueblos,  and  in  the  abandonment 
of  the  pueblo  of  Pecos,  in  the  year  1840,  and  the  removal  of  its 
surviving  inhabitants  to  Jemez.  The  population  of  Pecos  had  been 
reduced  by  wars  with  the  wild  tribes  of  the  plains,  and  by  de- 
structive contagious  diseases,  until  only  fourteen  persons  re- 
mained, and  it  was  determined  to  abandon  their  old  home  and 
migrate  to  the  pueblo  of  Jemez,  where  the  people  were  of  the 
same  family  and  spoke  the  same  language.  This  was  accord- 
ingly done,  the  people  carrying  with  them  their  most  cherished 
possessions;  and  they  were  received  and  welcomed  as  members 
of  the  Jemez  pueblo,  and  have  since  enjoyed  all  the  rights  of 
Indians  bom  there,  including  that  of  holding  office,  one  or  more 
of  the  Pecos  Indians  having  been  elected  to  the  position  of  gov- 
ernor of  Jemez. 


36  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

The  census  taken  by  the  United  States  authorities  in  1900 
shows  the  population  to  be  as  stated  below,  and  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  while  there  are  considerable  gains  or  losses  in  par- 
ticular pueblos,  yet,  in  the  aggregate,  the  Indian  population  has 
continued  almost  the  same  during  the  past  century.  It  would 
have  increased  considerably  since  the  days  of  warfare  have 
ceased  if  it  had  not  been  for  destructive  diseases  among  the 
children,  such  as  small-pox  and  diphtheria,  which  have  desolated 
whole  villages  in  a  few  weeks.  With  the  medical  care  and  ap- 
pliances now  afforded  to  them,  there  has  been  quite  an  appreci- 
able increase  in  the  population  since  this  census  was  taken. 

The  figures  are  as  follows: 

Taos    '419 

Picuris    98 

San  Juan 465 

Santa   Clara 223 

San  Ildefonso 137 

Nambe    81 

Pojuaque    12 

Tesuque    80 

Cochiti    295 

Santo  Domingo 772 

San  Felipe 516 

Sandia 86 

Jemez   455 

Zia  116 

Santa  Ana 228 

Isleta 1050 

Acoma    492 

Laguna  1077 

Zuni    1525 

8127 
The  grants  of  land  to  the  different  Pueblo  communities  were 
made  after  the  revolution  of  1680,  and  while  the  Spaniards  were 
still  at  El  Paso,  awaiting  the  re-conquest  and  occupation  of  the 
province.  This  action  seems  to  have  been  taken  as  a  measure 
of  conciliation  by  Governor  Cruzate,  in  view  of  his  contemplated 
re-entrance  into  New  Mexico.     In  each  case  the  testimony  was 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  37 

taken  of  an  Indian  named  Bartolome  de  Ojeda,  as  to  the  present 
condition  and  loyalty  of  the  Pueblos;  and  thereupon  the  grant 
was  made.  As  an  illustration  of  the  methods  of  the  day,  the 
following  brief  record  of  the  proceedings  in  the  case  of  Picuris 


PUEBLO  INDIAN   IDOLS 


is  inserted,  all  of  the  others  being  similar,  with  slight  differences 
in  the  testimony  to  conform  to  the  circumstances  of  each  case. 

''1689. —  In  the  town  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  del  Passo  del 
Rio  del  Norte,  on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  the  month  of  Septem- 


38  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ber,  in  the  year  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty-nine,  his 
excellency  Don  Domingo  Jironza  Petroz  de  Cruzate,  governor 
and  captain  general,  stated  that,  whereas,  in  overtaking  the 
Queres  Indians,  and  the  Apostates,  and  the  Teguas,  and  those 
of  the  Thanos  nation,  in  the  kingdom  of  New  Mexico,  and  hav- 
ing fought  with  all  the  Indians  of  all  the  other  pueblos,  an  In- 
dian named  Bartolome  de  Ojeda,  of  the  Pueblo  of  Zia,  who  was 
most  conspicuous  in  the  battle,  lending  his  aid  everywhere,  being 
wounded  by  a  ball  and  an  arrow,  surrendered ;  and,  as  previously 
stated,  I  ordered  him  to  declare,  under  oath,  the  condition  of 
the  pueblo  of  Picuris,  (very  rebellious  Indians),  who  apostatized 
and  took  part  in  the  wars  of  that  kingdom  of  New  Mexico. 

''Being  interrogated  if  this  pueblo  would  rebel  again  at  any 
future  time,  as  it  had  been  customary  for  them  to  do,  the  depon- 
ent answered,  No ;  that,  although  it  was  true  they  were  connected 
with  those  of  Zia  in  what  had  taken  place  in  the  year  previous, 
he  judged  it  w^as  impossible  for  them  to  fail  hereafter  in  giving 
their  allegiance. 

''Therefore  his  excellency,  Don  Domingo  Jironza  Petroz  de 
Cruzate,  governor  and  captain  general,  granted  the  boundaries 
herein  set  forth :  on  the  north  one  league,  and  on  the  east  one 
league,  and  on  the  west  one  leagiie,  and  on  the  south  one  league ; 
these  four  lines  to  be  measured  from  the  four  corners  of  the 
temple  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  pueblo,  and  his  excel- 
lency so  provided,  ordered  and  signed  before  me,  the  present 
secretary  of  government  and  war,  to  which  I  certify. 

"Don  Domingo  Jironza  Petroz  De  Cruzate. 
"Before  me,  Don  Pedro  Ladron  De  Guitara, 

' '  Secretary  of  Government  and  War. '  * 

The  only  notable  difference  in  the  form  of  the  grant  is  in  the 
case  of  Cochiti,  where  the  area  seems  to  have  been  somewhat  cur- 
tailed, and  which  ends  with  the  suggestive  words  ' '  this  they  owe 
to  being  rebels."  These  grants  have  all  since  been  confirmed 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States,  so  that  each  pueblo  has 
an  absolute  title  to  its  land. 

Turning  now  to  the  customs  and  manner  of  life  of  the  Pueblo 
Indians,  we  have  descriptions  from  Castaneda  and  Espejo,  and 
many  particulars  in  the  Epic  of  Villagra,  and  from  other  records 
of  the  early  occupations ;  and  all  of  these  agree  as  well  as  can  be 
expected  of  observations  made  by  men  of  different  tastes  and 
temperaments,  who  are  describing  matters  that  are  novel  to  them. 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  39 

and  of  which  they  may  only  make  mention  of  the  points  which 
to  their  minds  were  most  conspicuous  and  remarkable. 

Castaneda  gives  us  quite  full  descriptions  of  the  towns  and 


PUEBLO  INDfAN  IDOLS 

people  of  Cibola,  Tihuex,  and  Cicuic,  the  substance  of  which  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows: 

'  *  The  towns  are  built  in  a  square,  around  a  plaza  in  the  centre, 
in  which  are  the  estuf as.  The  houses  are  four  stories  high ;  the 
roofs  arranged  in  terraces,  all  the  same  height,  so  that  the  people 
can  make  a  tour  of  the  whole  town  without  having  to  cross  a 


40  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

single  street.  To  the  first  two  stories  there  is  a  corridor  ia  tlie 
form  of  a  balcony,  which  also  passes  completely  around  the  town 
and  which  affords  a  pleasant  place  to  sit  in  the  shade.  The 
houses  have  no  doors  below,  but  are  entered  by  movable  ladders, 
which  reach  to  the  balconies  on  the  inside  of  the  square. 

' '  The  houses  are  built  in  common.  The  women  mix  the  mortar 
and  build  the  walls.  The  men  bring  the  wood  and  construct  the 
frames.  They  have  no  lime,  but  they  make  a  mixture  of  ashes, 
earth  and  charcoal,  which  takes  its  place  very  well ;  for  although 
the  houses  are  so  high,  the  walls  are  not  more  than  three  feet 
thick. 

' '  The  young  men  who  are  not  yet  married  serve  the  public  in 
general.  They  go  after  fire-wood,  and  pile  it  up  in  the  court  or 
plaza,  where  the  women  go  to  get  it  for  the  use  of  their  houses. 
They  live  in  the  estufas,  which  are  under-ground  in  the  plazas  of 
the  town;  and  of  which  some  are  square  and  some  are  round. 
The  roofs  of  the  estufas  are  supported  by  pillars  made  of  the 
trunks  of  pine  trees.  I  have  seen  some  with  twelve  pillars,  each 
twelve  feet  in  circumference;  but  usually  they  have  only  four. 
They  are  paved  with  large  polished  stones,  like  the  baths  in 
Europe.  In  the  centre  is  a  fire-place,  with  a  fire  burning  therein, 
on  which  they  throw  from  time  to  time  a  handful  of  sage,  which 
suffices  to  keep  up  the  heat.  The  roof  is  on  a  level  with  the 
ground.  Some  of  these  estufas  are  as  large  as  a  tennis  court. 
When  a  young  man  marries,  it  is  by  order  of  the  aged  men  who 
govern.  He  has  to  spin  and  weave  a  mantle ;  they  then  bring  the 
young  girl  to  him,  he  covers  her  shoulders  with  it  and  she  be- 
comes his  wife.  The  houses  belong  to  the  women,  and  the  estufas 
to  the  men.  The  women  are  forbidden  to  sleep  in  the  latter,  or 
even  to  enter  them  except  to  bring  food  to  their  husbands  or 
sons.  The  men  spin  and  weave  ;  the  women  take  care  of  the  chil- 
dren and  cook  the  food. 

''Their  villages  are  very  neat;  the  houses  are  well  arranged 
and  kept  in  good  order ;  one  room  is  devoted  to  cooking  and  an- 
other to  grinding  grain.  The  latter  is  apart,  and  contains  a  fire- 
place and  three  stones  set  in  masonry;  three  women  sit  down 
before  the  stones;  the  first  breaks  the  grain,  the  second  crushes 
it,  and  the  third  grinds  it  entirely  to  powder.  In  all  the  province 
glazed  pottery  abounds  and  the  earthen  jars  or  vessels  are  of 
curious  and  beautiful  form  and  workmanship. 

' '  The  soil  is  so  fertile  that  it  does  not  need  to  be  worked  when 
they  sow ;  the  snow,  falling,  covers  the  seed  and  the  corn  starts 
underneath.     The  harvest  of  one  year  is  sufficient  for  seven. 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  41 

When  they  be^n  to  sow,  the  fields  are  still  covered  with  corn 
that  has  not  yet  been  gathered. ' ' 

These  descriptions  accord  very  well  with  what  we  know  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians  from  later  experience,  with  the  exception  of  the 


PUEBLO  INDIAN  IDOLS 

last  sentences,  in  relation  to  the  crops,  which  seem  to  be  rather 
extravagant;  but  it  may  be  remembered  that  the  spring  which 
Coronado  passed  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  was  an  exceedingly 
late  one,  so  that  it  is  very  possible  that  snows  occurred  after  the 
planting  of  the  corn. 


42  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Passing  now  to  the  time  of  Espejo,  his  descriptions  agree  very- 
well  with  those  we  have  just  quoted,  although  he  draws  atten- 
tion to  various  matters  not  spoken  of  by  the  former  narrators. 
He  tells  us  that  the  houses  were  four  stories  in  height  and  well- 
constructed  and  the  people  much  more  civilized  than  those  living 
to  the  south.  They  wore  clothing  of  cotton  and  of  deer-skin, 
and,  what  was  the  cause  of  much  surprise  to  the  Spaniards,  boots 
and  shoes,  with  soles  made  of  the  strongest  and  best  leather. 
They  raised  great  quantities  of  cotton,  from  which  many  of  their 
garments  were  made;  and  the  beautiful  and  curious  mantles, 
which  he  found  especially  common  at  Zia,  were  equal  if  not  su- 
perior to  anything  of  European  manufacture.  He  also  speaks  of 
the  ornamentation  of  the  houses  in  Zia,  these  being  the  most 
beautiful  the  Spaniards  had  seen  among  similar  native  races,  well- 
plastered,  and  painted  in  many  colors.  He  makes  special  mention 
of  the  idols  or  household  gods  of  the  people,  which  he  seems  to 
have  found  in  all  of  the  localities  he  visited.  He  speaks  of  them 
first  in  connection  with  the  pueblos  he  visited  in  the  vicinity  of 
Socorro  and  says:  ''A  great  number  of  idols,  which  the  Indians 
worship,  are  found  here ;  and  in  every^  house  there  is  an  oratory 
arranged  for  the  demon,  to  which  food  is  carried  for  him  to  eat. 
As  the  Spaniards  place  crosses  along  the  sides  of  roads,  these 
Indians  erect  chapels  in  which  they  say  that  the  demon  rests  him- 
self when  he  travels  from  one  place  to  another  through  the  coun- 
try. These  chapels  are  all  handsomely  decorated  and  orna- 
mented. ' '  On  his  first  expedition  into  the  mountainous  country 
toward  the  eastward,  he  writes,  "here  also  we  saw  idols,  which 
the  Indians  worship ; ' '  and  in  his  description  of  the  people  of  the 
Queres  nation,  north  of  Puara,  he  says,  "and  they  all  worship 
the  idols  in  the  manner  of  their  neighbors."  In  the  general  de- 
scription of  the  country  it  is  said:  "In  the  pueblos  of  all  the 
Indians  were  seen  a  multitude  of  idols. ' ' 

His  attention  was  attracted  by  the  great  amount  of  food 
stored  up  to  be  used  in  time  of  need,  and  the  ' '  infinity  of  hens ' ' 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  country  is  referred  to  several  times. 
Referring  to  their  arms,  he  says  that  they  had  very  strong  bows, 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  43 

and  arrows  with  points  of  flint,  with  which  they  were  able  to 
pierce  a  coat  of  mail  without  difficulty;  and  he  speaks  of  the 
macanas, —  which  may  be  called  the  characteristic  weapons  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians, —  as  being  half  a  yard  in  length  and  covered 


PUEBLO  INDIAN  IDOLS 


with  sharp  points  of  flint,  with  which  they  could  with  ease  cut  a 
man  in  two ;  and  he  also  tells  us  that  they  had  shields  and  buck- 
lers made  of  buffalo  hide  and  of  great  strength. 

The  descriptions  of  Benavides,  written  nearly  half  a  century 


44  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

later,  in  1526,  are  valuable  and  interesting,  as  they  are  the  result 
of  long  experience  among  the  people  after  the  Spanish  occupa- 
tion. 

As  to  the  success  of  agriculture  his  language  is  scarcely  less 
enthusiastic  than  that  of  Castaneda,  After  enumerating  almost 
every  variety  of  vegetable  as  among  the  regular  products,  and 
referring  to  the  apricots,  peaches,  plums,  and  nuts  that  abound- 
ed, he  adds:  ''And  the  earth  is  so  productive  that  they  reap 
from  120  to  130  fanegas  for  each  fanega  of  wheat  that  is  sown ; 
and  they  gather  excellent  crops  from  the  seed  which  has  fallen 
in  the  preceding  year,  without  any  other  attention  than  a  little 
watering. ' ' 

In  those  days  the  streams  were  full  of  fish,  of  which  he  enu- 
merates no  less  than  eight  varieties,  and  adds,  ''and  many 
others;"  and  the  plains  and  forests  abounded  in  game. 

He  speaks  of  the  curious  division  of  labor  which  seems  to  have 
been  characteristic  of  the  Pueblos  at  all  times:  "Among  these 
nations,  the  custom  is  for  the  women  to  build  the  walls  of  the 
houses,  while  the  men  spin  and  weave,  and  go  to  war  and  the 
chase,"  referring  to  this  fact  in  connection  with  the  large  num- 
ber of  churches  that  had  been  erected,  "which  have  been  built 
entirely  by  the  women  and  the  boys  and  girls." 

As  to  dress,  he  says,  ' '  all  the  people  are  clothed  in  mantas  of 
cotton  or  of  skin ;  and  they  wear  ornaments  as  far  as  they  are 
able,  particularly  necklaces  and  earrings  of  turquoise.  The 
women  are  modestly  dressed  in  their  mantas  of  cotton,  colored 
and  with  borders." 

On  another  subject  he  says :  "All  these  nations  in  their  pagan 
condition  were  divided  into  two  parties,  the  warriors  and  the 
priests  or  enchanters  (hechiceros),  the  former  trying  to  reduce 
all  the  people  to  obedience  to  themselves,  and  the  latter  to  have 
them  beileve  that  they  could  bring  rain  and  insure  good  crops ; 
and  so  these  two  parties  were  continually  in  opposition.  Their 
religion,  though  not  a  formal  idolatry,  was  almost  the  same,  for 
in  everything  that  they  did  they  made  offerings  of  meal  and 
other  things." 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  45 

In  almost  all  respects  these  descriptions,  written  by  the  earliest 
observers,  agree  with  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Pueblo  In- 
dians of  to-day.  Few  races  have  been  more  changeless  in  such 
matters.  The  modifications  most  noticeable  are  the  results  of 
altered  conditions  which  rendered  the  old  system  obsolete. 

For  instance,  the  style  of  architecture  of  their  buildings,  the 
terraced  form,  the  lack  of  doors  in  the  lower  story  and  the  plan 
of  entrance  by  ladders  which  could  easily  be  drawn  up  so  as  to 
remove  the  only  method  of  ingress,  were  for  purposes  of  defense 
from  the  attacks  of  marauding  tribes.  To  a  people  without  ar- 
tillery of  any  kind  such  a  building  was  almost  impregnable.  But 
with  the  American  annexation  and  the  security  from  danger 
which  has  followed,  the  necessity  for  this  style  of  building  has 
ceased ;  and  so,  gradually,  we  find  that  doors  are  being  cut  in  the 
older  buildings  and  that  the  new  houses  are  but  one  story  high. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  seen  in  Santo  Domingo,  where  the 
encroachments  of  the  river  have  resulted  in  the  gradual  engulf- 
ing of  more  than  half  of  the  old  pueblo,  including  its  massive 
church.  As  the  old  houses  are  thus  sunk  into  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
new  ones  built  to  the  eastward  to  take  their  places  are  in  the 
modem  form,  and  thus  the  two  sides  of  the  town  present  an  in- 
teresting contrast  of  old  and  new. 

But  apart  from  a  few  such  variations  caused  by  changed  con- 
ditions, the  Pueblo  Indian  of  to-day  is  the  same  as  the  Pueblo 
Indian  of  Castaiieda's  description.  Conservatism  is  a  law  of 
his  being,  and  no  changes  are  made  which  are  not  forced  by  ne- 
cessity or  some  very  manifest  advantage. 

In  many  respects  the  old  system  is  so  good  that  there  is  nothing 
to  be  gained  by  the  substitution  of  the  methods  of  Europe  or 
modern  America.  For  example,  the  system  of  government,  while 
it  might  not  be  successful  in  large  conununities,  is  better  in  its 
results  in  the  village  life  of  these  people  than  anything  that  could 
be  borrowed  from  their  neighbors.  The  admirable  way  in  which 
all  the  details  of  life  are  supervised  by  those  in  authority,  the 
excellent  influence  of  the  old  over  the  young,  the  habits  of  dis- 
cipline and  self-control  which  are  inculcated,  are  all  too  good  to 


46  HISTOEY  OP  NEW  MEXICO 

call  for  any  change,  or  at  least  for  the  substitution  of  the  looser 
and  less  effective  methods  of  the  more  civilized  people  around 
them.  The  wonderfully  business-like  way  in  which  all  the  public 
and  communal  business  of  the  town  is  conducted,  and  the  readi- 
ness with  which  the  entire  energy  and  united  force  of  the  com- 
munity can  be  directed  in  a  moment  to  any  work  or  enterprise  of 
general  public  concern,  are  matters  of  surprise  and  admiration 
to  those  not  accustomed  to  them. 

But  whether  for  good  or  for  evil,  the  fact  is  clear  that  no  people 
on  the  globe  has  changed  less  in  three  centuries  than  the  Pueblo 
Indians ;  so  that  a  description  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
is  almost  entirely  correct  for  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth. 

Some  mention  must  be  made  of  the  peculiarity  of  their  lan- 
guages, and  of  the  distinction  which  exists  between  the  various 
groups  of  pueblos  and  gives  rise  to  that  peculiarity. 

The  Pueblo  Indians,  though  similar  in  almost  all  respects,  yet 
were,  and  are,  distinctly  divided  into  several  great  families,  or 
''nations,"  as  the  older  writers  call  them.  The  term  ''Pueblo" 
Indian  is  comparatively  modern,  being  used  to  designate  all  of  the 
"town"  Indians  as  distinguished  from  the  wild  tribes  who  had 
no  permanent  villages;  but  in  the  earlier  records  the  particular 
"nacion"  is  always  mentioned.  Sometimes  the  division  is  made 
broadly  into  a  comparatively  few  groups,  and  by  other  writers 
minor  distinctions  are  noted.  The  leading  groups  of  nations  were 
the  Tehuas,  Queres,  Tanos,  Tihuas,  Piros,  and  Tompiros.  Sev- 
eral of  the  groups  of  the  greatest  importance  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  occupation  were  practically  destroyed  during  the  twelve 
years  of  the  Revolution,  or  have  gradually  dwindled  into  unim- 
portance.   Among  these  are  the  Piros,  Tanos,  and  Tompiros. 

One  of  the  most  careful  descriptions  that  we  have  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations  is  that  of  Padre  Fray  Alonzo  de  Benavides,  above 
referred  to,  who  was  Commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  and  Custo- 
dian of  the  Franciscans  for  the  Province  of  New  Mexico,  and 
made  a  very  full  and  interesting  report  of  the  condition  of  the 
country  and  people  in  1626.  He  described  the  various  divisions 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians  as  follows : 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  47 

^'1.    PIROS. 

*'0n  the  Rio  Grande,  with  Senecu,  Socorro  and  Sevilleta  as 
their  principal  points,  each  with  smaller  villages  around  it. 

''2.     TIHUAS. 

"With  fifteen  or  sixteen  pueblos  and  seven  thousand  people. 
They  had  two  'conventos,'  one  at  Sandia  and  one  at  Isleta,  in 
both  of  which,  he  tells  us,  are  schools  of  reading  and  writing 
where  they  also  learned  to  sing  and  to  play  various  instruments. 

/'3.     QUERES. 

*  *  With  seven  pueblos,  of  which  San  Felipe  was  the  first.  Among 
the  seven  towns,  three  had  *  conventos. ' 

''4.     TOMPIROS. 

"East  of  the  river,  with  fourteen  or  fifteen  pueblos,  six  con- 
ventos and  eleven  thousand  souls.  This  nation  included  all  the 
Salt  Lake  region,  and  had  Abo  and  Tabira  as  two  of  its  principal 
towns.  Quarra  or  Cuara  is  mentioned  as  containing  600  Queres 
Indians,  who  spoke  the  Piro  language. 

"5.     TANOS. 

*  *  To  the  north  of  the  Tompiros,  having  five  pueblos  with  4,000 
inhabitants.  These  were  the  Galisteo  towns,  including  San  Mar- 
cos, San  Lazaro,  etc. 

"6.     PECOS. 

"Benavides  says  that  the  Indians  of  Pecos  belonged  to  the 
Jemez  nation,  but  being  situated  alone,  they  are  considered  sepa- 
rately, though  they  speak  the  Jemez  language. 

"7.     TEHUAS. 

"Westward  again,  towards  the  Rio  Grande,  are  the  TEHUAS, 
with  eight  pueblos  and  6,000  persons.  They  had  conventos,  of 
which  the  most  important  was  that  of  San  Ildefonso. 

"8.     JEMEZ. 

"Though  half-depopulated  by  famine  and  war,  yet  it  con- 
tained 3,000  people. 

"9.     PICURIS. 

"With  2,000  inhabitants.  It  belongs  to  the  Tihua  family  but 
is  disconnected  and  distant. 

"10.     TAOS. 

"With  2,500  people.  Of  the  same  national  stock  as  Picuris, 
but  with  a  slight  variation  of  language. 

"11.     ACOMA,  on  its  '  Penol, '  with  about  2,000  souls. 

"12.     ZUNL 

"With  11  or  12  pueblos,  and  10,000  inhabitants." 

Coming  down  to  recent  times,  and  the  comparatively  small 


48  PIISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

number  of  pueblos  that  still  exist,  the  groups  are  much  sim- 
plified. 

Of  the  Piros  and  Tompiros  none  remain. 

Of  the  Tihuas,  in  the  region  where  they  were  so  numerous  in 
the  time  of  Coronado,  only  Isleta  and  Sandia  still  exist;  with 
Taos  and  Picuris  in  the  north. 

Of  the  Queres,  we  have  Santa  Ana,  Cia,  San  Felipe,  Cochiti, 
Santo  Domingo,  Laguna,  and  Acoma. 

Of  the  Tehuas,  we  have  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  Nambe,  San 
Ildefonso,  Pojuaque,  and  Tesuque. 

Jemez,  including  the  Pecos  Indians,  has  some  similarity  to  the 
Tanos ;  but  the  two  pueblos  of  Jemez  and  Pecos  are  rather  to  be 
considered  as  forming  a  group  by  themselves,  and  now  consoli- 
dated into  one  town, 

Zuiii  is  now  reduced  to  a  single  village. 

This  is  the  division  as  recognized  by  Lieutenant  Simpson,  in 
his  report,  which  was  the  first  American  authority  on  the  subject. 
He  was  especially  struck  with  the  essential  difference  between 
the  languages  of  the  various  families  or  nations ;  they  not  being 
dialects  of  the  same  tongue,  but  entirely  distinct  languages  with 
apparently  no  common  root.  A  few  illustrations  are  given  to 
show  the  extent  of  this  difference:  and  it  will  be  observed  that, 
while  in  the  Tehuan  language  most  of  the  words  are  very  short, 
and  those  of  the  Queres  are  not  much  longer,  the  words  of  similar 
meaning  in  the  Tanos  language  or  that  of  Zuni  are  composed  of 
numerous  syllables.  The  words  selected  are  the  names  of  some 
of  the  most  common  objects,  and  are  given  in  the  spelling  used  by 
Lieutenant  Simpson,  which  represents  the  sounds  by  the  ordinary 
pronunciation  of  the  letters  in  English. 


English 

TeJma 

Queres 

Zuni 

Earth 

Nah 

Hah-ats 

Ou-lok-nan-nay 

Man 

Say-en 

Hat-see 

Oat-se 

Head 

Pum-bah 

Nash-can-ne 

0-shuck-quin-nay 

Eye 

Chay 

Kan-nah 

I'oo-nah-way 

Foot 

Ah 

Kar-tay 

Wake-que-a-way 

One  peculiarity,  difficult  to  account  for,  is  that  the  distribution 


50  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

of  these  different  families  and  languages  is  not  geographical ;  the 
groups  are  not  compactly  arranged  in  different  sections  of  the 
country,  but  over-lap  one  another.  Thus  the  languages  of  Taos 
and  Picuris  in  the  north,  and  of  Isleta  in  the  south  are  similar, 
but  between  them  are  all  of  the  Tehua  and  Queres  pueblos  of  the 
Rio  Grande  Valley.  Again,  the  people  of  Pecos  were  identical 
with  those  of  Jemez ;  but  they  were  separated  by  all  of  the  Tanos 
villages  along  the  Galisteo,  and  by  the  Queres  pueblos  like  Santo 
Domingo  and  Cochiti. 

The  result  of  the  entire  difference  in  the  languages  of  the 
various  groups  or  families  of  Pueblo  Indians,  and  of  the  facility 
with  which  nearly  all  of  them  have  acquired  Spanish,  is  that  if  a 
native  of  Taos  meets  one  of  Santa  Clara,  or  if  a  party  from  San 
Juan  visits  the  great  annual  festival  at  Santo  Domingo,  they 
have  to  use  the  language  of  Castile  for  their  conversation,  instead 
of  the  original  tongue  of  any  of  their  people. 

After  the  Spanish  occupation  the  affairs  of  the  Pueblo  Indians 
are  naturally  included  in  the  general  history  of  the  country. 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  revolution  of  1680  it  will  be  found  that 
they  were  almost  always  restless,  frequently  conspiring  to  drive 
out  the  invaders,  and  often  rising  in  actual  revolt  in  one  pueblo 
or  another,  or  with  something  of  concerted  effort.  The  spirit  of 
independence,  which  had  kept  them  free  from  the  domination  of 
surrounding  tribes,  and  their  remembrance  of  the  excellent  local 
government  they  had  enjoyed  before  the  conquest,  naturally  pre- 
vented a  contented  submission  to  laws  and  customs  which  were 
foreign  to  their  ideas,  and  often  enforced  with  unnecessary  rigor. 

But  the  dozen  years  of  independence,  from  1680  to  the  re-con- 
quest by  De  Vargas,  wrought  a  great  change.  Under  the  Spanish 
domination  they  had  apparently  lost  the  capacity  for  self-govern- 
ment. Jealousy  and  dissension  reigned  supreme;  and  when  the 
Spanish  expeditions  under  Cruzate  and  others  penetrated  the 
country,  the  Pueblos  always  suffered  from  divided  councils.  Some 
were  ready  to  submit,  while  others  were  prepared  to  fight;  and 
after  each  of  these  invasions,  unsuccessful  as  they  were,  new  con- 
tentions arose  among  the  Indians  on  accpunt  of  these  differences. 


THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS  51 

Thus  we  find  the  Queres  and  the  Tehuas  uniting  to  punish,  and 
in  reality  almost  destroying,  the  Tanos  and  Tihuas,  who,  in  their 
belief,  had  been  too  friendly  to  the  Spaniards  during  one  of  the 
entradas. 

After  the  final  re-conquest  under  De  Vargas,  we  hear  no  more 
of  Pueblo  uprisings  or  conspiracies.  From  that  time  there  were 
almost  constant  Indian  hostilities,  but  they  were  Avith  the 
Apaches,  the  Comanches,  and  the  Utes  —  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
the  desert  and  the  ^reat  plains — and  in  all  o£  these,  the  Span- 
iards and  the  Pueblo  Indians  fought  side  by  side  against  the  in- 
vaders. Their  interests  were  in  common,  and  they  always  labored 
and  fought  in  unison.  In  the  attempted  revolution  of  1837,  many 
Pueblo  Indians  took  part,  but  all  they  did  was  in  conjunction 
with  their  Caucasian  neighbors,  and  as  a  part  of  the  general 
population  of  New  Mexico.  Again,  in  the  Taos  revolt,  some  of 
the  Indians  from  the  northern  pueblos  took  an  active  part;  but 
they  marched  and  fought  and  retreated  and  were  slain  by  the 
side  of  their  white  brethren,  who  had  risen  to  drive  the  strangers 
from  their  soil. 

So,  for  the  last  two  hundred  years  and  more,  we  may  say  that 
they  have  had  no  separate  history,  and  whatever  affected  them 
will  be  found  in  the  general  consideration  of  the  events  of  the 
successive  epochs. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

Caheza  Be  Vaca 

The  name  of  Alvaj*  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca  will  always  be  mem- 
orable in  New  Mexican  history,  as  that  of  the  first  European 
who  ever  set  foot  upon  her  soil.  Strangely  enough,  he  did  not 
come  from  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  nor 
even  from  the  more  distant  outposts  of  European  civilization 
near  the  Gulf  of  California ;  but  from  the  eastward,  after  a  long 
and  tedious  journey  across  a  great  part  of  the  continent.  Nor 
did  he  come  with  any  intention  to  visit  the  country,  either  as  a 
conqueror,  a  missionary,  or  an  explorer,  but  by  a  scries  of  acci- 
dents which  led  him  through  this  region  while  endeavoring,  after 
long  years  of  wanderings  and  suffering,  to  reach  some  Spanish 
settlement,  where  he  could  again  see  the  faces  and  hear  the  lan- 
guage of  his  countrymen. 

The  story  of  his  long  and  perilous  journey  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  in  early  American  history,  and  well  illustrates  the 
uncertainties  and  dangers  which  characterized  the  first  attempts 
at  exploration. 

Cabeza  de  Yaca  had  been  appointed  treasurer  of  an  important 
expedition  undertaken  by  Panphilo  de  Narvaez  for  the  conquest 
and  colonization  of  what  was  then  called  Florida,  being  the  whole 
of  the  country  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  Key  West 
to  the  Rio  de  las  Palmas  in  the  Mexican  state  of  Tamaulipas,  and 
including  all  of  what  now  constitutes  West  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  part  of  Mexico. 

Narvaez  obtained  from  the  King  of  Spain  authority  to  colonize 
this  entire  region,  of  which  he  was  made  governor,  captain  gen- 
eral, and  adelantado,  on  condition  that  he  should  take  no  less 
than  two  hundred  colonists  from  Spain  and  found  at  least  two 


CABEZA  DE  VACA  53 

towns,  all  at  his  own  cost;  and  he  started  from  San  Lucar  de 
Barrameda,  in  Spain,  on  the  17th  of  June,  1527,  with  iive  vessels 
and  about  600  men. 

But  from  its  very  commencement  ill  fortune  attended  the  ex- 
pedition. At  Santo  Domingo,  where  it  stopped  for  horses  and 
provisions,  no  less  than  140  men  deserted  in  order  to  try  their 
fortune  on  the  luxuriant  shores  of  the  island.  When  sailing  to 
Cuba,  two  of  the  vessels  were  destroyed  by  a  tremendous  hurri- 
cane, the  force  of  the  storm  being  so  great  that  a  small  boat  be- 
longing to  one  of  the  ships  was  found  in  the  branches  of  a  tree 
a  long  distance  from  the  coast;  and  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  who  com- 
manded one  of  the  vessels  thus  wrecked,  only  escaped  through 
his  good  fortune  in  being  on  shore  at  the  time.  Afraid  to  proceed 
further,  Narvaez  wintered  on  the  island,  but  when  he  again  set 
sail  in  the  spring  continual  tempests  marked  his  progress.  He 
had  expected  to  stop  off  at  Havana,  but  adverse  winds  drove  his 
little  fleet  to  the  northwest,  and  on  April  12,  1528,  they  came  in , 
sight  of  land  near  what  is  now  called  Tampa  Bay  in  Florida. 

Here  they  landed  on  the  next  day,  near  to  an  Indian  village, 
but  found  all  of  the  houses  deserted,  the  inhabitants  ha^dng  fled 
in  the  night.  These  houses  were  called  ' '  buhios, ' '  and  had  double- 
shedded  roofs ;  and  one,  which  was  probably  used  for  tribal  meet- 
ings, was  so  large  as  to  be  capable  of  accommodating  800  persons. 
On  the  14th,  the  governor  raised  the  Spanish  standard  and  form- 
ally took  possession  of  all  the  surrounding  country,  in  the  name 
of  the  king,  Charles  the  Fifth. 

But  arrival  on  the  land  was  far  from  a  conclusion  of  the  mis- 
fortunes of  the  expedition.  The  Indians  whom  they  met  constantly 
talked  of  a  very  rich  country  to  the  north,  called  Apalache,  from 
which  they  said  the  linen  and  woolen  cloth  which  they  wore,  and 
more  particularly  the  pieces  of  gold  which  they  showed,  had 
come.  Thither  the  little  army  started  to  march,  but  met  with 
grave  difficulties  from  the  first.  The  ships,  which  were  ordered  to 
-proceed  along  the  coast  slowly  so  as  to  be  within  easy  distance  of 
the  land  expedition,  were  soon  lost  to  view,  and  were  never  after- 
wards seen  by  Narvaez  or  any  of  his  company.    An  entire  lack 


54  HISTOEY  OF  NEW-  MEXICO 

of  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  country  caused  long  delays, 
and  the  bays  and  rivers  which  were  met  with  greatly  impeded 
the  journey.  Boats  had  to  be  constructed  to  cross  the  Suwanee, 
and  the  hostility  of  the  natives  who  were  encountered  added  to 
the  difficulties  arising  from  lack  of  provisions. 

Ten  weeks  were  thus  occupied  before  the  welcome  sight  of 
Apalache  gladdened  the  eyes  of  the  half -starved  and  exhausted 
Spaniards,  on  June  26th ;  and  then  their  joy  was  short-lived,  for 
instead  of  a  great  and  rich  city  they  found  only  a  small,  poor 
town  without  gold  or  anj^thing  of  value.  Here  they  remained 
nearly  a  month  for  rest,  and  then  started  southward  to  seek  the 
Gulf  at  a  town  called  Aute,  on  Apalachicola  Bay.  But  there  an 
unknown  malady  attacked  them,  and  many  succumbed  to  its 
power,  while  all  were  enfeebled  and  discouraged.  All  hope  of 
relief  from  their  vessels  was  soon  abandoned  and  they  determined 
as  a  last  resource,  if  possible,  to  build  rough  boats  to  carry  them 
from  the  scene  of  their  misfortunes.  But  no  project  could  seem 
less  possible  of  execution.  They  had  no  tools,  no  iron,  no  forge, 
no  rigging;  and  not  a  single  man  who  possessed  any  knowledge 
of  mechanical  arts. 

Necessity,  however,  proved,  as  often  before  and  since,  the 
mother  of  invention.  A  bellows  was  made  from  a  tin  pipe  and 
some  deer  skins;  stirrups,  spurs,  and  every  article  of  iron  were 
transformed  into  nails,  axes,  and  other  tools.  From  the  leaves 
of  the  palmetto  they  made  a  substitute  for  tow ;  ropes  and  rigging 
were  manufactured  from  the  fibre  of  the  same  plant  and  the  tails 
and  manes  of  their  horses,  while  the  shirts  of  the  men  were  given 
up  to  be  used  as  sails. 

By  enormous  exertions  they  succeeded  by  Sepitember  20th  in 
building  five  boats,  and  into  them  the  247  survivors  were  crowd- 
ed ;  the  boats  being  so  heavily  laden  that  the  men  could  not  move 
without  danger  of  sinking.  What  added  to  the  difficulties  was 
that  not  a  single  one  understood  the  principles  of  navigation. 
No  alternative  however  remained,  and  so  they  put  out  to  sea,  pro- 
ceeding westward  along  the  coast  and  stopping  from  time  to  time 
for  fresh  water  and  shellfish.  Several  times,  in  storms,  they  were 
almost  overwhelmed,  and  in  passing  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 


CABEZA  DE  VACA  55 

were  three  days  fighting  against  the  mighty  current,  which  threat- 
ened to  carry  them  out  to  sea. 

When  that  was  passed,  on  November  third,  the  vessels  were  so 
far  separated  that  none  of  the  others  could  be  seen  from  that  com- 
manded by  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  and  the  whole  fleet  was  never  again 
united.  Storm  succeeded  storm  until  the  provisions  were  so  far 
reduced  that  the  daily  allowance  had  to  be  limited  to  half  a 
handful  of  raw  corn.  At  length,  w^hen  all  were  exhausted,  in  the 
darkness  of  night  they  were  cast  ashore  on  a  sandy  island  on  the 
coast  of  what  is  now  known  as  eastern  Texas.  Here  several  were 
drowned,  but  the  remainder,  more  dead  than  alive,  were  tenderly 
cared  for  by  the  natives,  who  carried  them  to  their  cabins. 

Unfortunately,  however,  their  troubles  were  far  from  being, 
even  yet,  at  an  end.  A  severe  winter  followed,  during  which 
sixty-five,  of  the  eighty  who  had  landed,  perished.  When  spring 
came,  twelve  of  the  survivors  crossed  to  the  mainland,  leaving 
Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  two  others  who  were  sick,  on  the  island.  In 
this  vicinity,  surrounded  by  Indians,  and  treated  as  a  slave,  the 
late  treasurer  remained  for  six  long  years,  continually  looking 
for  means  to  escape  and  to  travel  towards  the  settlements  of  his 
countrymen. 

At  length  an  opportunity  offered,  and  he  started  inland,  and 
was  astonished  to  hear  of  three  strangers  being  held  by  a  neigh- 
boring tribe,  and  on  meeting  them,  to  find  three  of  his  old  com- 
panions, Alonzo  de  Castillo,  Andres  Dorantes,  and  Estevan,  a 
Barbary  negro.  These  were  all  held  in  bondage,  to  which  Vaca 
was  also  subjected,  and  a  year  and  a  half  elapsed  before  another 
opportunity  for  escape  occurred.  Then  they  all  proceeded  north- 
westerly far  into  the  interior  of  Texas,  gaining  great  celebrity 
among  the  Indians,  as  physicians,  and  being  conducted  from 
tribe  to  tribe  with  much  ceremonj^,  as  Superior  Beings  sent  from 
Heaven  for  the  healing  of  mankind.  Still  at  times  they  suffered 
great  privations,  traveling  entirely  naked,  and  reduced  to  the 
verge  of  starvation.  After  traversing  vast  plains,  they  at  length 
came  in  sight  of  the  mountains,  and  shortly  after  reached  ''a 
great  river  coming  from  the  north;"  and  then,  after  crossing 
rough  mountains,  devoid  of  water  or  food,  they  were  gladdened 


56  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

by  the  sight  of  "  a  very  large  river,  the  water  of  which  was  breast- 
high."  The  first  of  these  streams  was  undoubtedly  the  Pecos 
and  the  second  the  Rio  Grande. 

Soon  after,  they  encountered  natives  of  a  very  superior  char- 
acter, and  for  the  first  time  saw  ' '  habitations  having  the  appear- 
ance and  structure  of  houses."  Castillo  calls  them  ''fixed  dwell- 
ings of  civilization,"  and  Cabeza  de  Yaca  uses  the  term  ''settled 
habitations."  This  is  the  first  description  that  we  have  of  what, 
either  in  existence  or  in  ruins,  are  known  as  the  Pueblo  Indian 
towns.  Here  they  found  a  people  entirely  different  from  the  no- 
madic tribes  of  the  Texas  plains,  wearing  garments  made  of 
buffalo  hide  and  also  of  cotton,  protecting  their  feet  with  leather 
shoes  and  using  the  amole  or  soap  weed  for  cleansing  purposes. 
They  had  also  an  abundance  of  flour,  grain,  beans,  and  pumpkins. 

Thus  westerly  the  Spaniards  traveled,  healing  the  sick  and 
teaching  the  rudiments  of  Christianity,  but  always  hastening  on 
towards  the  point  where  they  hoped  to  hear  of  some  of  their 
own  countrymen.  They  were  uniformly  well  treated  among  these 
more  civilized  Indians,  the  great  difficulty  being  to  escape  from 
the  hospitality  of  the  successive  villages  and  proceed  on  their  way. 
The  people  presented  them  with  many  fine  turquoises,  which  they 
said  came  "from  the  north"  and  which  were  probably  the  pro- 
duct of  the  celebrated  mine  whose  vast  extent  is  still  a  source  of 
wonder,  in  the  Cerrillos  district  south  of  Santa  Fe ;  and  also  five 
emeralds,  shaped  into  arrow  heads,  which  they  greatly  prized. 

So  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  his  companions  proceeded  through 
southern  New  Mexico,  northern  Chihuahua  and  Sonora,  until 
they  reached  a  town  which  they  called  the  Town  of  Hearts  — 
Plaza  de  los  Corazones  —  near  which  they  saw  an  Indian  wearing 
as  ornaments  the  buckle  of  a  sword  belt  and  the  nail  of  a  horse- 
shoe. These  things,  small  in  themselves,  were  to  the  Spaniards 
most  significant,  for  they  told  of  the  proximity  of  European  set- 
tlements ;  and  but  a  little  more  time  elapsed  before  the  travelers 
found  themselves  at  last  in  the  midst  of  their  countrymen  on  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 

This  was  in  the  spring  of  1536,  nearly  eight  years  after  their 


CABEZA  DE  VACA  57 

landing  in  Florida ;  during  fullj^  seven  years  of  this  time  they  had 
lived  altogether  among  Indians,  traversing  the  entire  width  of 
the  continent  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  utterly  lost  to  the  civilized 
world,  even  in  memory.  Years  before  their  unexpected  re-appear- 
ance they  had  been  mourned  as  dead,  and  even  the  most  sanguine 
of  their  friends  had  abandoned  all  hope  of  ever  receiving  tidings 
of  their  fate. 

On  their  journey  they  had  found  the  same  radical  difference 
between  the  nomadic  Indian  tribes  of  the  Gulf  coast,  half -clothed 
and  half -starved,  and  the  civilized  natives  of  New  Mexico,  living 
in  permanent  houses  and  raising  grain  and  vegetables  to  eat  and 
cotton  to  wear,  as  exist^s  today  between  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
plains  and  the  peaceful  and  industrious  Pueblo  Indians. 

The  record  of  the  travels  and  privations  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and 
his  companions  will  always  be  of  the  highest  interest,  as  giving 
the  incidents  of  an  almost  unprecedented  journey,  and  the  first 
account,  by  any  European,  of  the  soil  and  the  people  of  Texas, 
southern  New  Mexico,  and  the  adjacent  regions. 


CHAPTEE  V 

Friar  Marcos  De  Niza 

As  might  well  be  supposed,  the  re-appearance  of  Cabeza  de 
Vaca,  who  had  long*  been  considered  as  dead,  created  great  excite- 
ment, and  the  accounts  given  by  himself  and  his  companions  of 
their  adventures  and  of  the  lands  through  which  they  had  passed, 
were  listened  to  with  eager  excitement.  Especially  did  the  de- 
scriptions, given  with  all  the  exaggeration  characteristic  of 
travelers  in  strange  lands,  of  the  great  and  populous  cities,  of  the 
civilized  country  near  the  Rio  Grande,  and  of  the  houses  four  or 
^ve  stories  high,  of  which  they  were  composed,  excite  the  admira- 
tion and  kindle  the  adventurous  ardor  of  the  Spaniards  of  Mexi- 
co. They  happened  to  arrive  just  when  they  were  greatly  interest- 
ed in  that  very  country,  and  ready  to  believe  almost  any  accounts 
of  its  riches,  however  fabulous. 

Six  years  before,  in  1530,  an  Indian,  held  in  slavery^  by  Nufio 
de  Guzman,  then  governor  of  New  Galicia,  brought  the  first  re- 
port of  that  region,  which  he  called  "The  Land  of  the  Seven 
Cities. ' '  He  stated  that  his  father,  who  was  a  merchant,  used  to 
travel  into  the  interior  of  the  country  in  order  to  sell  ornamental 
feathers  for  which  he  obtained  great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver, 
which  metals  were  very  common  in  that  country.  He  added  that 
on  several  of  these  trips  he  had  accompanied  his  father  and  had 
seen  cities  which  were  so  extensive  and  magnilicent  as  to  equal 
if  not  exceed  in  grandeur  the  city  of  Mexico.  These  cities  were 
seven  in  number  and  in  them  the  precious  metals  were  so  plenti- 
ful that  whole  streets  had  to  be  devoted  to  the  goldsmiths.  To 
reach  this  country,  he  said,  it  was  necessary  to  proceed  directly 
north  between  the  great  oceans,  and  on  the  journey  was  a  desert 
so  extensive  that  it  required  forty  days  to  cross. 


FEIAR  MAECOS  DE  NIZA  59 

Inflamed  by  the  description  of  the  riches  of  the  country,  and 
not  deterred  by  the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  the  desert  march, 
Governor  Guzman  lost  no  time  in  preparing  for  the  conquest  of 
this  new  El  Dorado,  and  soon  set  out  with  an  army  of  400  Span- 
iards and  20,000  Indian  allies  on  the  northern  march  for  that 
purpose.  All  went  well  so  long  as  he  was  within  the  limits  of 
the  Spanish  occupation  in  Mexico,  and  even  until  he  arrived  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  of  California  at  Culiacan.  But  here  a 
mountainous  region  was  encountered,  so  wild  and  inaccessible 
that  it  was  impossible  to  find  a  proper  passage ;  and  large  num- 
bers of  the  Spaniards,  who  had  enlisted  in  the  enterprise  without 
fully  counting  its  cost,  lost  courage  and  returned  to  their  homes. 

Not  wishing  to  return  to  Mexico  on  account  of  political  changes 
there  which  had  brought  his  enemies  into  power,  and  yet  unable 
to  proceed  further  on  his  expedition,  Guzman  concluded  to  settle 
in  the  part  of  the  country  where  he  then  was,  looking  forward 
to  the  day  when  more  favorable  circumstances  would  permit  him 
to  carry  out  his  cherished  purpose.  Before  this  time  came,  how- 
ever, he  was  accused  of  various  political  crimes  and  thrown  into 
prison  and,  in  1536,  Francisco  Vasquez  Coronado,  a  man  of  high 
position  and  a  chivalric  and  adventurous  spirit,  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  province  over  which  Guzman  had  ruled  and  which 
was  called  New  Galicia. 

Just  as  Coronado  was  proposing  to  proceed  to  the  seat  of  his 
new  government,  full  of  ambition  as  to  his  career  in  this  difficult 
field  of  action,  Cabeza  de  Vaca  with  his  companions  arrived  in 
Mexico,  where  they  were  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  the 
marvelous  stories  of  the  regions  to  the  north  listened  to  with  the 
most  intense  interest.  Coronado  was  charmed  and  excited  by  the 
idea  of  having  such  a  wonderful  field  for  discovery  and  conquest 
on  the  very  border  of  his  province,  and  determined  to  lose  no  time 
in  arranging  the  preliminaries  of  an  expedition  which  he  trusted 
might  be  as  glorious  and  important  as  those  of  Cortes  and  Pi- 
zarro.  Cabeza  de  Vaca  had  already  set  sail  for  Spain,  but  Coro- 
nado secured  the  services  of  Estevan,  the  Barbary  negro,  whose 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  of  the  language  and  customs  of  the 


60  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Indian  tribes  was  considered  of  great  value,  and  immediately 
organized  an  exploring  expedition,  which  he  placed  in  charge  of 
a  Franciscan  monk,  named  Marcos  de  Niza. 

Marcos  himself  had  had  much  previous  experience  in  Peru  and 
was  considered  an  admirable  leader,  and  he  certainly  showed 
himself  unexcelled  as  a  narrator  of  extraordinary  things,  however 
he  may  have  fallen  short  in  other  particulars.  His  report  to  the 
king,  made  immediately  after  his  return  in  September,  1539,  is  a 
very  formal  document,  attested  by  various  notaries,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  viceroy,  the  governor  and  the  high  officials;  and, 
while  it  is  full  of  exaggerations,  yet  we  follow  its  statements  here, 
both  because  it  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  times  and 
also  shows  on  what  foundation  the  celebrated  expedition  of  Coro- 
nado  in  1540  was  based. 

His  instructions  were  to  proceed  immediately  and  enter  the 
interior,  so  as  to  reach  the  Land  of  the  Seven  Cities,  taking  Este- 
van  as  a  guide;  to  avoid  all  collisions  or  difficulties  with  the 
natives,  and  to  observe  and  report  on  all  the  products  of  the 
country,  its  resources  and  advantages,  together  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  people.  As  in  all  the  expeditions  of  that  day,  re- 
ligion and  conquest  went  hand  in  hand ;  and  so  he  was  ordered,  in 
case  he  found  a  city  so  important  as  to  be  the  proper  seat  of  a 
monastery,  to  return  forthwith  to  Culiacan  to  arrange  therefor, 
''for  in  the  proposed  conquest  the  most  important  matter  is  the 
service  of  our  Lord  and  the  good  of  the  natives  of  the  country. ' ' 

The  expedition,  which  was  principally  composed  of  Mexican 
Indians,  started  from  San  Miguel  in  the  Province  of  Culiacan  on 
the  seventh  of  March,  1539,  and  first  proceeding  to  the  town  of 
Petatlan,  continued  on  northwesterly,  parallel  to  the  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  and  a  short  distance  from  it.  Everywhere 
they  were  received  most  hospitably  by  the  natives,  who  brought 
provisions  and  flowers  as  presents,  and  wherever  there  were  no 
houses,  arranged  arbors  of  the  branches  of  trees  as  shelters  for 
the  strangers. 

At  length  he  arrived  at  the  boundary  of  a  desert  so  extensive 
that  four  days  were  required  to  cross  it,  and  which  seems  to  have 


FEIAK  MARCOS  DE  NIZA  61 

formed  a  complete  barrier  between  the  adjacent  tribes,  for  the 
people  on  the  north  side  were  found  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
language  used  on  the  south,  and  so  far  from  ever  having  seen  a 
white  man,  they  had  not  even  heard  of  their  existence,  and  hailed 
the  friar  as  a  celestial  visitor,  calling  him  "Hayota,"  which  means 
* '  a  man  from  Heaven, ' '  and  showing  him  every  token  of  respect 
and  adoration.  These  people,  however,  were  poor  and  few  in 
number  and  the  Spaniards  eagerly  inquired  for  news  of  the  large 
and  wealthy  cities  of  which  they  were  in  search,  and  were  en- 
couraged by  the  information  that  four  or  five  days'  journey  from 
the  mountains  was  a  great  plain  where  would  be  found  numerous 
people,  living  in  large  towns,  who  dressed  in  cotton,  and  among 
whom  gold  abounded.  Not  only  were  their  household  vessels 
made  of  this  metal,  and  the  walls  of  their  temples  plated  with  it, 
but  the  informants  particularized  sufficiently  to  say  that  they 
'*used  thin  plates  of  gold  to  scrape  off  their  sweat,"  and  also  that 
th^  wore  precious  green  stones  suspended  from  their  ears  and 
nostrils. 

It  being  doubtful,  however,  in  which  direction  it  was  best  to 
proceed.  Friar  Marcos  concluded  to  stop  at  the  largest  town  of 
these  friendly  Indians  and  send  Estevan  in  advance  with  a  small 
party  to  explore  the  country,  with  instructions  to  send  a  message 
whenever  he  should  see  or  hear  anything  of  interest.  A  novel 
system  of  communication  was  agreed  on,  it  being  arranged  that 
if  the  place  discovered  was  not  of  special  importance,  the  negro 
should  send  back  a  white  cross  one  hand  in  length ;  ' '  if  it  were 
of  any  great  matter,  one  of  two  handfuls  long ;  and  if  it  were  a 
country  greater  and  better  than  New  Spain,  he  should  send  a 
great  cross. ' ' 

We  may  imagine,  therefore,  the  excitement  and  joy  occasioned 
to  the  friar,  when,  only  four  days  after  the  departure  of  the 
advance  guard,  messengers  arrived  from  Estevan,  bringing  a- 
great  cross  as  high  as  a  man,  and  tidings  that  he  had  informa- 
tion of  a  new  country  which  was  the  greatest  in  the  world.  To 
corroborate  this  wonderful  announcement,  a  native  was  sent  back 
who  had  visited  the  unknown  land,  and  whose*  statements  more 


62  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

tiian  bore  out  all  that  was  reported  of  it.  He  said  that  thirty 
days'  march  in  advance  was  a  great  kingdom  caUed  Cibola,  in 
which  were  seven  mighty  cities  of  great  wealth,  the  houses  in 
which  were  of  stone  and  generally  two  or  three  stories  in  height, 
the  palace  of  the  ruler  being  still  more  lofty.  The  people  were  all 
well-clothed,  wealth  abounded,  and  the  doors- of  all  the  principal 
mansions  were  ornamented  with  multitudes  of  turquoises  cut  into 
various  shapes. 

Scarcely  had  Marcos  had  time  to  realize  the  importance  of  this 
news,  when  three  Indians,  called  ''Pintados"  because  so  elabo- 
rately decorated  with  paint,  arrived  from  the  east,  who  said  they 
were  familiar  with  Cibola,  and  corroborated  all  that  had  been  said 
of  the  glories  of  the  Seven  Cities ;  and  soon  other  messengers  from 
Estevan  arrived,  urging  the  friar  to  hasten  on,  as  further  infor- 
mation increased  the  importance  of  the  lands  to  be  discovered, 
and  it  appeared  that  besides  Cibola  itself,  there  were  three  other 
great  kingdoms  in  its  vicinity  called  Marata,  Acus,  and  Toton- 
teac.  Accordingly  Marcos  lost  no  time  in  marching  on,  and  soon 
met  numbers  of  natives  who  said  that  thej^  were  familiar  with  the 
Seven  Cities,  as  they  went  there  to  work  every  summer ;  and  who 
had  much  to  say  of  the  wealth  of  the  people,  of  the  long  cotton 
garments  they  wore,  and  the  turquoises  almost  universally  used 
as  ornaments. 

The  country  was  found  to  be  increasingly  populous  as  he  pro- 
ceeded and  the  people  became  more  and  more  intelligent  and 
prosperous.  For  four  days  the  friar  passed  through  a  succession 
of  villages  in  each  of  which  he  was  treated  with  the  utmost  hos- 
pitality, and  the  people  were  well-dressed  in  clothes  of  cotton  or 
of  tanned  buffalo  skin,  nearly  all  of  them  wearing  turquoise  orna- 
ments, called  "cacona."  Here,  also  for  the  first  time,  the  Span- 
iards heard  of  the  existence  of  sheep  in  the  country,  one  of  the 
•chiefs  informing  Marcos,  after  examining  his  gray  woolen  suit, 
that  while  at  Cibola  only  cotton  cloth  was  used,  at  Totonteac 
were  "little  animals  which  furnish  the  wool  from  which  the  same 
kind  of  cloth  was  made. ' ' 

So  he  traveled  on,  crossing  a  desert  four  days'  journey  in 


FEIAE  MAECOS  DE  NIZA  63 

width,  and  then  coming  to  a  lovely  valley,  thickly  populated  and 
beautifully  cultivated  throughout,  and  which  he  was  five  days  in 
traversing.  Near  the  end  of  the  valley  was  a  large  town,  called 
Chichilticale,  and  here  the  friar  was  delighted  to  meet  an  actual 
resident  of  Cibola,  the  first  whom  he  had  seen,  and  whom  he  de- 
scribes as  * '  a  white  man  of  a  good  complexion, ' '  and  far  superior 
intellectually  to  any  of  the  natives  with  whom  he  had  before  been 
brought  in  contact.  This  man,  who  was  quite  aged,  more  than 
corroborated  all  that  had  been  heard  before.  He  described  Ci- 
bola as  a  very  populous  city,  with  fine  streets  and  market  places, 
with  five  storied  houses  built  of  stone,  the  gates  and  pillars  of  the 
principal  residences  being  of  turquoise,  while  all  the  houseliold 
vessels  were  of  gold.  With  all  this  it  was  far  from  the  largest  of 
the  Seven  Cities,  Abacus,  the  capital,  being  altogether  superior. 
He  also  told  of  the  great  surrounding  kingdoms  and  especially  of 
Totonteac,  which  was  the  most  powerful  in  the  world. 

Marcos  was  now  on  the  border  of  a  wide  desert  which  was  the 
last  to  be  encountered  on  the  route  to  Cibola,  and  a  multitude  of 
the  people  offered  to  act  as  an  escort  to  that  city.  When  Este- 
van  had  passed  a  short  time  before  no  less  than  300  had  accom- 
panied him,  and  far  more  now  presented  themselves  to  the  friar. 
But  he  selected  only  30  of  these  to  be  his  companions,  choosing 
those  who  were  the  wealthiest  and  most  important,  while  a  num- 
ber of  others  came  as  servants  to  carry  provisions,  the  desert 
journey  being  one  of  15  days  in  length. 

They  started  on  this  expedition  on  the  9th  of  May,  full  of 
enthusiasm  and  high  hope,  and  thus  proceeded  for  12  days  and 
nearly  to  their  journey's  end,  when  suddenly  they  were  met  by 
one  of  the  Indians  who  had  accompanied  Estevan,  nearly  ex- 
hausted and  covered  with  perspiration ;  his  appearance  foreshad- 
owing the  bad  news  of  which  he  was  the  bearer. 

He  told  them  that  on  the  arrival  of  the  negro  at  Cibola  the  in- 
habitants of  the  city  had  taken  him  and  all  his  company  prison- 
ers and  put  them  into  a  log  house  just  outside  the  walls,  taking 
from  them  all  the  articles  of  value  they  possessed  and  leaving 
them  all  night  without  food  or  water.     The  next  morning  the 


64  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

narrator,  being  very  thirsty,  had  left  the  house  and  gone  to  a 
stream  near  by  for  water,  and  while  there  saw  Estevan  running 
away,  being  pursued  by  the  Cibolans,  who  were  killing  his  fol- 
lowers as  they  went.  On  seeing  this,  he  had  hidden  himself,  and 
at  the  first  opportunity  fled  into  the  desert. 

This  unexpected  news  naturally  threw  the  followers  of  Marcos 
into  consternation  and  loud  murmurs  against  the  Spaniards  soon 
filled  the  air.  The  friar  however  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  He 
opened  some  of  the  packages  of  goods  he  had  brought  for  traffic 
and  made  presents  of  the  contents  to  the  principal  men,  which 
had  such  a  reassuring  effect  that  they  consented  to  go  forward 
again,  and  journeyed  on  until  within  a  single  day's  march  of 
Cibola,  when  they  met  two  more  of  the  Indians  who  had  accom- 
panied Estevan,  wounded  and  bleeding.  These  told  the  same 
story  of  the  capture  and  attempted  escape  of  the  negro  and  his 
party.  They  had  been  with  him  at  the  house  and  were  pursued 
by  the  Cibolans,  who  killed  many  and  wounded  all,  so  that  they 
believed  they  were  the  only  survivors  of  the  entire  expedition. 
This  news,  which  concerned  the  sons  and  brothers  of  those  who 
formed  the  escort  of  Marcos,  roused  their  indignation  to  a  pitch 
^akin  to  frenzy,  not  only  against  the  men  of  Cibola  but  against 
the  friar  who  had  brought  this  great  calamity  upon  them ;  and 
it  required  all  his  address  to  prevent  a  dangerous  outbreak  which 
would  have  threatened  his  own  life. 

All  his  persuasion  and  the  promises  of  unlimited  presents  did 
not  avail  to  induce  them  to  go  a  foot  nearer  to  the  city  where 
such  destruction  had  taken  place;  and  Marcos,  now  forced  to 
abandon  all  hopes  of  entering  the  city,  had  to  content  himself 
with  taking  observations  of  it  from  a  distance.  For  that  purpose 
he  went  to  an  adjacent  elevation  from  which  he  could  look  into 
it,  and  in  his  report  says  that  "it  maketh  show  to  be  a  fair  city 
and  better  seated  than  any  I  have  seen  in  these  parts.  The  houses 
are  builded  in  order,  all  made  of  stone,  with  divers  stories  and 
flat  roofs.  The  people  are  somewhat  white,  they  wear  apparel 
and  lie  in  beds ;  their  weapons  are  bows ;  they  have  emeralds  and 
other  jewels,  although  they  esteem  none  so  much  as  turquoise, 


FRIAR  MARCOS  DE  NIZA  65 

wherewith  they  adorn  the  walls  and  the  porches  of  their  houses 
and  their  apparel  and  dresses,  and  they  use  them  instead  of 
money.  They  use  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  whereof  there  is 
greater  use  and  of  more  abundance  than  in  Peru. ' ' 

Having  thus  viewed  from  afar  the  Promised  Land  into  which 
he  could  not  enter,  Friar  Marcos  set  up  a  slender  cross  and  form- 
ally proclaimed  that  he  took  possession  of  the  province  in  the 
name  of  the  viceroy  and  of  the  king  of  Spain,  calling  the  same 
'*E1  Neuvo  Reyno  de  San  Francisco;"  and  being  particular  to 
announce  that  he  not  only  took  possession  of  Cibola,  but  of  all  the 
Seven  Cities  and  of  the  kingdoms  of  Totonteac,  of  Acus,  and  of 
Marata. 

This  done,  he  hastened  to  overtake  his  escort,  which  was  re- 
turning with  a  rapidity  inspired  by  fear ;  but  found  so  much  feel- 
ing aroused  against  him  among  the  natives  that  he  was  glad  to 
escape  from  them  and  the  people  of  the  valley  whose  relatives  had 
loeen  slain,  by  swift  traveling.  In  due  time  he  reached  the  Mexi- 
can towns  and  made  a  report  to  Governor  Coronado,  which  was 
sent  to  the  viceroy  and  thence  to  the  emperor,  and  which  by  its 
extravagance  of  language  and  extraordinary  exaggerations  of  the 
wealth  and  importance  of  the  Land  of  the  Seven  Cities  created  a 
great  excitement  in  both  the  New  and  Old  World  and  swiftly  led 
to  the  celebrated  expedition  of  Coronado. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Coronado 

The  reports  brought  back  by  Friar  Marcos  to  New  Galicia  and 
Mexico  were  so  much  beyond  what  had  been  hoped,  that  they  na- 
turally created  great  excitement.  While  others  might  have  been 
thought  to  invent  or  at  least  exaggerate,  his  position  as  a  Fran- 
ciscan friar  gained  entire  credence  for  the  most  highly  colored 
statements,  and  both  the  viceroy  and  Governor  Coronado  were 
eager  for  the  exploration  and  conquest  of  the  new  El  Dorado 
beyond  the  desert. 

It  was  determined  immediately  to  organize  an  expedition,  of 
which  Coronado  was  very  properly  named  as  commander,  both 
because  the  discover}^  of  Cibola  had  been  made  through  his  instru- 
mentality and  also  on  account  of  his  gallantry  and  exi)erience  in 
arms.  The  most  chivalrous  and  enterprising  cavaliers  of  New 
Spain  flocked  to  his  standard  as  soon  as  the  news  of  the  expedition 
spread;  so  that  the  troop  of  Spaniards  which  finally  started  on 
the  great  march  was  the  most  brilliant  as  to  family  and  wealth 
that  had  ever  been  gathered  in  the  New  World.  Indeed  the  only 
difficulty  encountered  was  from  this  "embaras  de  richesses"  in 
the  material  of  the  expedition,  almost  every  member  of  which  is 
said  to  have  been  worthy  of  being  a  leader. 

In  order  that  the  commander  might  not  gain  ill  will  in  the 
selection  of  officers,  the  viceroy  performed  this  duty  himself, 
knowing  that  all  would  willingly  submit  to  his  decision.  ' '  Seeing 
the  great  number  of  gentlemen  taking  part  in  the  expedition," 
says  its  historian,  Castaneda,  ' '  the  Viceroy  would  have  been  glad 
to  have  given  each  one  the  command  of  an  army;  but  as  the  sol- 
diers were  so  few,  it  was  necessary  to  make  a  choice.  lie  chose 
for  standard-bearer  Don  Pedro  de  Tobar,  a  young  cavalier  son 


CORONADO  67 

of  Don  Fernando  de  Tobar,  mayor-domo  of  the  late  Queen 
Joana,  our  legitimate  sovereign,  whose  soul  may  God  preserve. 
He  appointed  as  Maestro  de  Campo,  Lope  de  Samaniego,  gover- 
nor of  the  arsenal  of  Mexico,  and  a  chevalier  well  worthy  of  this 
position.  The  captains  were  Don  Tristan  de  Arellano,  Don  Pedro 
de  Guevara,  Don  Garcia  Lopez  de  Cardenas,  Don  Rodrigo  Maldo- 
nado,  brother-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Infantado,  Diego  Lopez, 
member  of  the  city  council  of  Seville,  and  Diego  Gutierrez, 
captain  of  cavalry.  All  the  other  gentlemen  were  placed  directly 
under  the  orders  of  the  General,  because  they  were  men  of  dis- 
tinction, and  a  number  of  them  were  afterwards  captains."  The 
commander  of  the  infantry  was  Pablo  de  Melgosa,  and  the  chief 
of  artillery  Hernando  de  Alvarado. 

All  told,  the  army  consisted  of  400  Spaniards  and  800  Indian 
soldiers,  and  it  was  fully  organized  at  Compostela,  the  capital  of 
New  Galicia,  in  the  spring  of  1540.  To  show  his  great  interest, 
and  give  special  eclat  to  the  occasion,  the  viceroy  himself  came 
to  the  city  and  held  a  grand  review  of  the  troops,  addressing 
them  in  inspiring  language  on  the  three-fold  importance  of  their 
work:  to  their  country,  by  conquering  a  great  province;  to  the 
natives,  by  bringing  them  to  a  knowledge  of  Christianity;  and 
to  themselves,  by  bettering  their  future. 

The  viceroy  acconlpanied  the  expedition  for  two  days  in 
order  to  encourage  it  to  the  fullest  extent.  As  soon  as  he 
departed,  the  holiday  aspect  disappeared  and  the  real  work  of  the 
march  began.  Many  soon  found  that  they  had  brought  far  too 
much  baggage  for  convenience  and  were  glad  to  give  away  super- 
fluous articles  or  leave  them  on  the  wayside;  others,  who  had 
been  brought  up  to  lives  of  idleness  and  luxury,  found  them- 
selves compelled  to  perform  work  to  which  they  were  far  from 
accustomed.  Still,  all  pressed  forward  eagerly  towards  the  won- 
derful "Land  of  the  Seven  Cities,"  which  was  to  bring  to  each 
one  wealth  and  honor. 

At  Culiacan,  Coronado's  impatience  to  reach  the  iield  of  ex- 
ploration and  conquest  became  so  great  that  he  decided  to  press 
on  in  advance  of  the  main  body  of  the  army ;  and  so,  taking  Friar 


68  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Marcos  as  guide,  with  fifty  horsemen  and  a  few  soldiers  on  foot, 
he  started  on,  leaving  the  remainder  under  the  command  of  Don 
Tristan  de  Arellano,  with  orders  to  follow  as  speedily  as  possi- 
ble. The  governor  and  his  small  company  proceeded  rapidly 
over  the  road  traveled  by  Marcos  two  years  before.  They  were 
well  treated  by  the  natives,  many  of  whom  remembered  the  form- 
er expedition;  and  were  full  of  enthusiasm  until  they  reached 
the  town  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  of  which  the  friar  had  given 
such  a  glowing  account,  and  which  was  called  Chichilticale.  But 
here  came  a  great  disappointment ;  for  instead  of  the  flourishing 
city  they  had  been  led  to  expect,  they  found  in  reality  but  one 
single  dwelling  and  that  in  a  ruinous  condition.  It  was  of  great 
size  and  its  architecture  gave  evidence  of  its  being  the  work  of 
some  superior  and  civilized  nation  in  time  gone  by;  but  the  ex- 
pedition had  not  come  to  seek  relics  of  antiquity  but  the  riches 
and  glory  of  the  present,  and  was  correspondingly  disappointed. 
This  great  building  is  readily  identified,  being  that  now  known 
as  the  Casa  Grande  of  Arizona;  and  its  connection  with  this 
expedition  adds  to  its  intrinsic  interest  as  a  specimen  of  early 
American  architecture. 

Although  somewhat  depressed,  Coronado  determined  still  to 
press  on  without  waiting  for  the  main  body  to  come  up ;  and  so 
marched  into  the  great  desert  which  even  with  his  well-equipped 
men  he  was  15  days  in  crossing.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  he  was 
gladdened  by  the  sight  of  a  stream  of  water,  which  from  its  red- 
dish color  the  Spaniards  called  Yermejo,  and  which  for  the  same 
reason  is  now  named  Colorado  Chiquito  (Little  Red).  They 
were  now  but  about  twenty  miles  from  Cibola  itself,  and  excite- 
ment ran  high  in  the  camp.  Soon  after,  they  saw  a  few  Indians ; 
but  they  fled  at  the  sight  of  the  invaders.  On  the  evening  of  the 
next  day,  being  but  five  miles  from  the  city,  they  discerned  some 
natives  watching  their  movements  from  a  hill  top,  who  raised 
such  a  frightful  cry  that  for  a  moment  it  carried  consternation 
among  the  Spaniards ;  but  on  pursuing  the  Indians  they  escaped 
toward  Cibola. 

The  next  day,  Coronado  and  his  little  army  arrived  in  sight  of 


CORONADO  69 

the  famous  city  of  which  they  had  heard  so  much ;  but  what  was 
their  astonishment  and  chagrin  to  find  that  instead  of  a  great 
capital,  it  was  but  a  small  town  containing  not  over  two  hundred 
warriors,  whose  power  of  resistance  arose  not  from  the  numeri- 
cal strength  of  its  people  but  from  its  situation  on  a  great  rock, 
difficult  and  dangerous  to  approach.  It  was  true  that  the  houses 
were  three  or  four  stories  high,  but  they  were  small  and  badly 
arranged ;  and  one  court-yard  had  to  suffice  for  an  entire  quarter. 

Coronado  by  signs  made  overtures  of  friendship,  but  the  Cibo- 
lans  seemed  instinctively  to  understand  that  this  meant  vassalage, 
and  so  prepared  to  resist  an  attack  outside  the  walls.  An  assault 
soon  followed,  the  Spaniards  charging  with  loud  cries  of  "San- 
tiago. ' '  They  soon  forced  the  Indians  to  fly  to  the  shelter  of  the 
town.  The  Spaniards  followed,  but  as  the  only  place  of  ascent 
was  steep  and  dangerous,  they  met  with  considerable  loss.  Show- 
ers of  stones  were  hailed  upon  them,  and  Coronado  himself  was 
struck  to  the  ground  and  narrowly  escaped  death.  Still  they 
pressed  on,  and  finally  the  discipline  of  trained  warriors,  together 
with  the  advantage  of  fire  arms,  prevailed;  and  the  Christians 
marched  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of  the  first  Pueblo  town 
that  had  ever  been  seen  by  European  eyes.  This  is  now  called 
by  the  Indians  "Ilawaikuh." 

Here  Coronado  remained  for  a  considerable  time,  waiting  for 
the  arrival  of  his  main  armj^  familiarizing  himself  with  the 
customs  of  the  people,  and  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  Province  of  Cibola  —  which  is  the  modern 
Zuni  —  contained  seven  towns  in  all,  and  all  were  well  governed 
by  the  older  men.  The  people  were  orderly  and  industrious  and 
exemplary  in  their  habits  and  morals.  They  treated  the  Span- 
iards with  hospitality  and  in  return  Coronado  prevented  any 
outrages  or  oppression  being  committed  by  his  soldiers  upon  the 
people.  At  length  the  main  army  arrived,  fatigued  from  their 
march,  and  the  southern  Indians  suffering  from  the  effects  of 
the  cold  and  snow  to  which  they  were  not  accustomed ;  but  other- 
wise they  were  in  good  condition. 

While  they  were  resting,  Coronado  sent  a  small  detachment 


70  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

under  Don  Pedro  de  Tobar  to  visit  the  province  called  Tusayan, 
about  twenty-five  leagues  to  the  northwest,  in  which  he  was  told 
there  were  seven  cities  similar  to  those  of  Cibola.  So  secretly 
and  swiftly  did  this  expedition  march  that  it  arrived  in  the  night 
under  the  very  walls  of  the  houses  of  the  nearest  of  these  cities, 
and  the  first  notice  that  the  inhabitants  had  of  danger  was  the 
sight  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  midst  at  early  dawn.  Some  par^ 
leying  ensued,  followed  by  an  attack  by  the  Spaniards  on  the 
natives,  terminating  as  usual  in  the  submission  of  the  latter ;  and 
within  a  short  time  all  of  the  towns  sent  deputations  to  acknowl- 
edge the  authority  of  the  strangers  and  to  invite  them  to  visit 
and  trade. 

This  province,  which  is  the  modem  Moqui  or  Hopi,  was  un- 
doubtedly the  Totonteac  of  which  Marcos  gave  such  glowing  ac- 
counts. It  consisted  of  seven  villages,  governed,  as  were  those 
of  Cibola,  by  councils  of  aged  men.  The  people  were  industrious, 
raising  large  quantities  of  com,,  and  making  well  tanned  leather. 
Among  the  gifts  which  they  presented  to  the  Spaniards  were 
pottery  and  turquoise. 

Here  Don  Pedro  was  told  of  a  great  river  to  the  westward,  on 
which  a  race  of  giants  dwelt,  and  was  so  much  impressed  with  the 
description  of  its  size  and  depth,  that  Coronado  sent  another 
^expedition,  consisting  of  twelve  horsemen  under  Don  Garcia 
Lopez  de  Cardenas,  to  search  for  it.  This  party  went  first  to 
Tusayan  for  guides  and  then  for  twent}^  days  marched  westerly 
through  an  uninhabited  country  until  at  length  they  beheld  — 
first  of  all  Europeans  —  what  we  now  know  as  the  Grand  Canon 
of  the  Colorado.  They  called  it  the  River  Tison,  and  described 
its  depth  by  saying  that  the  sides  of  the  caiion  were  "three  or 
four  leagues  in  the  air. ' '  For  three  days  they  traveled  along  its 
side,  seeking  for  a  place  to  descend  into  the  canon,  but  were 
forced  to  return  without  accomplishing  that  feat. 

While  this  expedition  was  absent,  there  came  to  visit  Coronado 
a  deputation  from  a  province  far  to  the  eastward,  called  Cicuic, 
headed  by  their  young  chief,  who  on  account  of  his  long  mus- 
taches was  called  by  the  Spaniards  '^Bigotes."     He  said  that 


COEONADO  71 

the  news  of  the  arrival  of  the  white  men  had  reached  his  country, 
two  hundred  miles  away,  and  they  had  come  to  offer  their  friend- 
ship and  services.  He  told  much  of  the  country  and  its  produc- 
tions, dwelling  specially  on  the  great  number  of  buffaloes  to  be 
found  to  the  eastward.  As  this  afforded  a  good  opportunity  for 
exploration,  Coronado  directed  xilvarado  with  twenty  men  to 
accompany  Bigotes  on  his  return  and  to  gain  all  the  knowledge 
possible  of  the  country.  Accordingly,  they  set  out  with  the 
deputation  from  Cicuic,  and  at  the  end  of  ^ve  days  came  to 
Acuco  —  the  present  pueblo  of  Acoma  —  a  town  impregnably 
situated  on  the  summit  of  a  great  rock,  whose  sides  are  so  per- 
pendicular that  ascent  is  impossible  except  in  one  place,  where 
artificial  steps  have  been  made.  Here  the  people  were  found 
to  have  great  quantities  of  pottery,  bread,  corn,  pinons,  etc.,  of 
all  of  which  they  generously  presented  goodly  supplies  to  the 
Spaniards. 

Without  delay,  however,  Alvarado  continued  on  with  Bigotes, 
and  in  three  days  came  to  the  province  of  Tihuex  (pronounced 
Tee-wesh),  containing  twelve  villages  in  all;  the  town  of  Tihuex 
itself  being  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  Pueblo 
cities,  with  four-storied  buildings,  extensive  plazas  and  large 
circular  estufas  paved  with  stone.  This  province  stretched  along 
the  Rio  Grande  for  thirty  or  forty  miles,  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
present  Albuquerque  to  that  of  San  Felipe ;  the  town  of  Tihuex 
itself  being  near  Bernalillo,  and  very  possibly  identical  with  the 
Puara  of  later  narratives.  It  was  the  land  of  the  Tihuas,  or 
Tiguas,  or  Tiwas,  as  the  name  of  that  division  of  the  Pueblo  In- 
dians is  variously  spelled  by  different  writers.  Alvarado  was  so 
greatly  delighted  with  the  fertility  of  the  country  in  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  and  with  the  kindness  of  the  people,  that  he  sent 
a  messenger  back  to  Coronado  recommending  that  the  army 
should  make  its  winter  quarters  there. 

Five  days  more  brought  the  little  expedition,  with  Bigotes,  to 
the  home  of  the  latter  at  Cicuic,  a  large  and  handsome  town,  built 
in  terrace  form  around  a  square,  four  stories  in  height,  and 
strongly  fortified.  Here  the  Spaniards  were  received  with  special 


72  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

hospitality,  as  the  guests  of  the  chief;  and  remained  for  some 
time,  until  the  main  army  had  arrived  at  Tihuex. 

This  town  of  Cicuic  (pronounced  See-coo-eek),  which  was  the 
largest  in  New  Mexico,  and,  indeed,  at  that  time,  in  the  whole 
of  the  present  United  States,  is  easily  identified  as  the  more  mod- 
ern Pecos.  Why  it  is  called  by  the  chroniclers  of  Coronado's 
expedition  by  a  different  name  from  that  by  which  it  is  distin- 
guished in  all  subsequent  history,  is  difficult  to  determine.  The 
word  is  variously  spelled  Cicuic,  Cicuyc,  Cicuique,  Acuique,  etc., 
and  by  mistaking  the  linal  "c"  for  an  ^'e,"  appears  in  the 
French  translation  of  Ternaux-Compans  as  Cicuye,  and  has  been 
copied  in  that  erroneous  form  and  even  with  an  improvised  ac- 
cent on  the  final  ''e"  by  many  recent  writers. 

While  here,  Alvarado  met  a  man  whose  statements  had  much 
to  do  with  the  future  of  the  expedition.  This  was  a  native  of 
the  far  east,  somewhere  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  who  was  held 
as  a  servant  at  Cicuic,  and  who  from  his  oriental  appearance  was 
always  called  by  the  Spaniards,  "The  Turk,"  to  the  exclusion 
of  any  other  name.  As  soon  as  he  met  Alvarado,  he  began  to 
urge  him  to  march  over  the  plains  to  a  wonderful  country,  which 
he  described  as  abounding  in  all  kinds  of  riches,  especially  in 
gold  and  silver;  and  whose  chief  city  was  called  Quivira.  So 
glowing  were  his  accounts,  that  the  Spanish  captain  felt  that  it 
was  a  mere  waste  of  time  to  explore  a  country  whose  only  wealth 
was  in  buffaloes ;  and  so,  without  going  further,  he  hastened  back 
to  Coronado,  to  tell  of  the  great  news  he  had  received,  taking 
"The  Turk"  with  him. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Spanish  army,  in  accordance  with  the 
suggestion  of  Alvarado,  had  made  Tihuex  its  winter  quarters, 
taking  possession  of  the  houses  and  treating  the  inhabitants  with 
much  harshness;  a  poor  return  for  their  recent  hospitality. 
Coronado  himself  waited  at  Cibola  for  re-enforcements  under 
Tristan  de  Arellano,  and  then  marched  on  to  Tiheux,  taking  a 
route  through  a  province  of  eight  villages,  called  Tutahaco,  which 
was  either  in  the  valley  of  the  San  Jose  river,  near  the  present 
pueblo  of  Laguna  or  on  the  Rio  Grande  near  Isleta. 


CORONADO  73 

When  lie  arrived  in  Tihuex,  Alvarado  lost  no  time  in  bringing 
"The  Turk"  before  him,  and  the  latter  was  now  even  more 
extravagant  than  before  in  his  descriptions  of  the  east.  He  said 
that  in  that  country  was  a  river  two  leagues  in  width,  containing 
fish  the  size  of  a  horse,  and  navigated  by  great  vessels,  in  the 
stern  of  which  the  nobles  sat  under  canopies  surrounded  by 
every  luxury.  All  his  descriptions  ended  with  the  statement 
that  the  commonest  vessels  in  this  far-off  land  were  of  silver, 
and  all  the  table  utensils  of  gold. 

Strange  to  say,  these  were  believed,  without  a  doubt ;  and  such 
confidence  was  placed  in  The  Turk  that  those  opposing  him  were 
distrusted.  Even  Bigotes  and  the  cacique  of  Cicuic  were  seized 
and  imprisoned,  on  the  statement  of  this  imposter  that  he  had 
left  some  golden  bracelets  in  their  city,  which  they  refused  to 
deliver. 

This  naturally  caused  great  indignation  among  the  natives, 
which  was  enhanced  by  the  injustice  and  hai-shness  of  Spanish 
officers  in  collecting  cotton  goods  for  clothing  for  their  troops, 
and  by  other  outrages.  The  result  was  a  general  uprising,  in 
which,  after  striking  one  blow,  the  Indians  wisely  maintained  a 
defensive  attitude  within  their  almost  impregnable  houses.  The 
Spanish  attacks  resulted  only  in  loss,  until  some  Indian  allies 
dug  underground  passages  to  some  of  the  houses,  and  by  kind- 
ling fires,  so  filled  them  with  smoke,  that  the  inmates  were  com- 
pelled to  come  out.  A  large  number  surrendered  under  what 
they  understood  to  be  conditions  of  pardon,  but  were  almost 
immediately  massacred. 

All  through  the  winter,  hostilities  continued,  culminating  in 
the  siege  of  Tiheux,  which  lasted  no  less  than  fifty  days,  with 
considerable  loss  on  both  sides,  until  the  inhabitants  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  town  for  want  of  water,  and  most  of  them 
perished  in  the  river,  which  was  intensely  cold,  or  by  the  hands 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  discovered  their  retreat.  While  this  siege 
was  in  progress,  Coronado  visited  Cicuic  in  order  to  regain  the 
friendship  of  the  people,  and  by  restoring  their  cacique  to  lib- 
erty and  promising  soon  to  liberate  Bigotes,  succeeded  in  that 


74  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

design.  After  Tiheux  had  been  taken,  a  friendly  expedition 
was  also  sent  to  Chia  (the  pueblo  of  Zia)  four  leagues  distant; 
and  another  to  the  Queres  province  to  the  north ;  both  of  which 
were  favorably  received. 

The  whole  army  was  impatient  to  start  on  its  march  to  the 
far  east,  of  which.  ^ '  The  Turk ' '  had  given  such  vivid  descriptions, 
and  especially  to  the  rich  city  of  Quivira,  which  was  the  special 
object  of  their  ambition.  The  winter,  however,  was  an  unusually 
long  and  severe  one,  so  that  it  was  not  until  early  in  May  (May 
5,  1541),  that  the  march  from  Tihuex  actually  commenced. 
At  Cicuic,  Bigotes  was  returned  to  his  people,  and  that  chief, 
together  with  the  cacique,  presented  to  Coronado  a  young  Indian 
named  Xabe,  who  was  a  native  of  Quivira  itself,  to  assist  as 
guide  On  the  expedition.  This  young  man  confirmed  many  of 
the  statements  of  the  Turk  as  to  the  country  in  the  far  east,  but 
was  much  more  modest  in  his  estimate  of  the  wealth  of  that 
region.  Still,  enough  was  corroborated  to  make  both  officers  and 
men  very  eager  to  reach  this  unknown  land;  so  they  left  Cicuic 
after  a  brief  stay,  and  started  off  boldly  into  the  unknown  wilder- 
ness to  the  east. 

After  crossing  some  mountains,  they  came  to  a  large  river  too 
deep  to  ford,  and  where  consequently  they  were  detained  four 
days  in  constructing  a  bridge ;  after  which  they  marched  for  ten 
days  more  over  a  rough  and  hilly  country,  when  they  arrived 
at  the  border  of  the  plains  and  soon  saw  the  camp  of  a  nomadic 
tribe  called  ' '  Querechos, ' '  who  lived  in  tents  of  buffalo  skins,  and 
who  were  of  great  intelligence.  These  Indians  informed  the 
Spaniards  that  far  to  the  east  was  a  river  so  long  that  it  re- 
quired ninety  days  to  march  along  its  sides,  and  which  was  over 
a  league  in  width;  they  also  corroborated  what  the  Turk  had 
reported  of  the  richness  of  the  country;  but  not  till  after  they 
had  had  a  conversation  with  that  worthy.  The  country  now 
traversed  was  the  great  plain  east  of  the  mountains  in  New 
Mexico,  which  they  found  covered  with  enormous  droves  of 
buffalo,  literally  innumerable  in  quantity.  Occasionally  they 
came  to  great  ravines  or  canons,  in  one  of  which,  probably  that 
of  the  Canadian,  they  found  an  encampment  of  Indians,  who 


CORONADO  75 

reported  that  they  had  met  Cabeza  de  Yaca  and  his  companion 
on  their  journey  seventeen  years  before. 

Thus  the  army  traveled  in  a  general  northeasterly  direction, 
through  a  level  country,  well  supplied  with  fruit  and  fairly  pop- 
ulated, daily  losing  faith  in  the  glowing  stories  of  the  Turk  as 
they  heard  the  plain  statements  of  Indians,  whom  he  had  no 
opportunity  to  consult  in  advance,  until  their  calculation  of  the 
distance  from  Tihuex  reached  250  leagues,  and  they  had  been 
thirty-seven  days  on  the  route.  Provisions  were  now  running 
low,  with  no  possibility  of  being  replenished,  and  altogether  the 
situation  was  so  serious  that  Coronado  called  a  council  of  war. 
Here  it  was  finally  determined  that  the  general  with  thirty 
horsemen  and  six  foot  soldiers  should  proceed  in  search  of 
Quivira;  while  the  main  body  of  the  army,  after  waiting  a 
reasonable  time  for  advices,  should  return  to  Tihuex  under 
Tristan  de  Arellano.  The  soldiers,  who  idolized  Coronado,  ob- 
jected strenuously  to  this  programme,  but  it  was  nevertheless 
carried  out;  the  Turk  being  taken  with  the  exploring  party,  in 
chains,  as  punishment  for  what  were  now  recognized  as  his  false 
statements. 

The  little  party  traveled  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  still  it  re- 
quired no  less  than  forty-eight  days  to  make  the  journey  across 
the  plains  to  Quivira.  This  celebrated  city,  the  goal  of  so  many 
high  hopes  and  ambitions,  was  found  just  to  the  east  of  a  great 
river  and  appears  to  have  consisted  of  a  succession  of  towns  and 
villages  situated  on  small  streams  which  flowed  into  that  river, 
from  the  east.  The  community  was  certainly  great  in  extent, 
but  as  far  as  wealth  was  concerned,  it  was  an  entire  disappoint- 
ment. So  far  from  possessing  great  quantities  of  the  precious 
metals,  the  people  appeared  to  have  no  knowledge,  whatever,  of 
either  gold  or  silver ;  indeed  no  metals  were  seen  at  all,  except  a 
plate  of  copper  which  the  ruler  wore  upon  his  breast,  and  which 
was  very  highly  esteemed  by  all  the  people. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  indignation  of  the  Spaniards  at  the 
Turk  when  these  facts  became  known ;  and  he,  seeing  that  nothing 
was  to  be  accomplished  by  further  deception,  boldly  acknowledged 
that  he  had  given  them  false  information  at  the  request  of  the 


76  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

people  of  Cicuic,  who  wished  the  Spaniards  to  ])e  led  astray  on 
the  plains,  so  that  they  would  perish  there  or  be  so  exhausted 
by  long  marching  as  easily  to  be  overcome  on  their  return.  It  is 
not  strange,  under  the  circumstances,  that  Coronado's  officers 
promptly  strangled  the  impostor,  who  had  led  them  so  far  into 
the  wilderness ;  nor  need  we  be  surprised  that  the  general  quickly 
turned  back  from  this  city,  which  though  of  much  importance 
and  interest  in  certain  ways,  yet  failed  to  meet  the  demand  for 
gold  which  seems  largely  to  have  actuated  most  of  the  adven- 
turous explorers  of  those  days.  Besides,  the  present  expedition, 
with  less  than  fifty  men,  was  simply  to  ascertain  with  exacti- 
tude the  locality  of  the  city  and  its  surroundings,  with  a  view 
to  a  future  return  with  the  entire  army. 

It  appears  that  Coronado  entered  Quivira  and  that  the  people 
without  murmur  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  superior  race. 
At  the  furthest  point  that  he  reached  in  exploring  the  city,  he 
erected  a  great  cross  with  this  inscription,  "Francisco  Vasquez 
de  Coronado,  Commander  of  an  expedition,  arrived  at  this  place.  * ' 
The  houses  were  generally  circular,  with  roofs  of  straw,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  water-tight;  and  outside,  on  top,  many  of  them 
had  a  kind  of  cupola  with  an  entrance,  where  the  Indians  sat  or 
laid  down. 

The  exact  situation  of  Quivira  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
investigation  and  controversy.  Some  suppose  that  the  great  river 
referred  to  was  the  Missouri  and  that  the  location  was  somewhat 
to  the  north  of  St.  Joseph,  where  a  number  of  branches  come  in 
from  the  east.  One  or  two  writers  have  placed  it  as  far  north 
as  Council  Bluffs,  thus  claiming  that  Coronado  was  the  first  Eu- 
ropean to  enter  Nebraska.  The  weight  of  opinion,  however, 
seems  to  be  that  it  was  somewhere  in  northeastern  Kansas,  on 
the  banks  of  a  considerable  river,  but  whether  as  far  east  as  the 
Missouri  or  on  a  smaller  stream  is  uncertain.  The  description 
given  shows  it  to  have  been  not  unlike  other  settlements  of  In- 
dians in  that  section  of  country,  none  of  which  were  very  perman- 
ent in  character. 

The  confusing  of  Quivira  with  the  ruins  of  Tabira  in  Central 
New  Mexico,  popularly  called  Gran  Quivira,  is  the  most  serious 


COEONADO  77 

mistake  in  the  otherwise  very  careful  history  of  the  "Spanish 
Conquest"  by  Gen.  W.  W.  H.  Davis. 

While  Coronado  and  his  little  company  had  been  making  their 
long  journey  across  the  plains,  the  main  army  under  Arellano 
had  returned  to  Tiheux,  taking  a  more  southerly  route  than  that 
by  which  they  went,  passing  the  salt  lagunas  in  what  is  now  Tor- 
rance county,  and  striking  the  Rio  Grande  considerably  below 
the  point  at  which  they  had  crossed  before.  From  Tihuex  sev- 
eral expeditions  were  sent  out  during  the  absence  of  Coronado, 
one  up  the  Jemez  river  as  far  as  Jemez  and  thence  to  Yuque- 
ynnque  (near  Chamita),  and  still  further  north  to  the  large 
pueblo  of  Braba,  re-named  by  the  Spaniards  Valladolid,  and 
easily  recognizable  as  the  present  pueblo  of  Taos;  and  another 
exploring  the  country  along  the  Rio  Grande,  to  the  south,  a  dis- 
tance stated  to  be  80  leagues,  through  the  province  of  the  Piros 
and  discovering  four  towns  not  before  visited,  probably  includ- 
ing the  present  Socorro  and  San  Antonio. 

In  August,  Coronado  and  his  little  party  returned  to  Cicuic,  1 
having  traveled  from  Quivira  by  a  better  route  in  but  forty  days ; 
and  continued  to  Tihuex,  A\here  he  determined  to  devote  the  fall 
and  winter  to  preparation  for  a.  grand  expedition  to  be  under- 
taken in  the  coming  spring,  not  only  to  the  land  of  Quivira,  but 
to  regions  far  beyond.  On  October  20,  he  addressed  a  long  and 
interesting  report  to  the  king  of  Spain.  Every  effort  was  made 
to  re-establish  friendly  relations  with  the  natives  of  the  country, 
and  to  re-clothe  and  recuperate  the  army  for  the  spring  cam- 
paign ;  and  when  the  winter  was  at  an  end,  all  were  looking  for- 
ward eagerly  to  the  day  of  departure  on  their  new  and  important 
mission. 

But  on  the  very  eve  of  their  march,  an  accident  changed  the 
whole  course  of  procedure.  While  Coronado  was  engaged,  on  a 
festival  day  at  his  favorite  game  of  running  at  a  ring,  in  com-  . 
pany  with  Don  Rodrigo  Maldonado,  the  saddle  girth  broke  and 
he  was  thrown  to  the  ground  immediately  in  front  of  the  horse 
of  the  latter  and  received  a  kick  in  the  head  which  well-nigh 
proved  fatal.  As  it  was,  he  was  confined  to  his  bed  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  meanwhile  a  feeling  of  despondency  spread 


78  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

throughout  the  army.  Many  of  the  officers  were  anxious  for 
various  reasons  to  return  to  Mexico,  and  a  petition  was  handed 
to  the  general,  asking  an  abandonment  of  the  expedition.  Cor- 
onado,  himself,  wearied  with  sickness,  had  begun  to  long  for  the 
pleasures  of  home,  where  he  had  left  a  young  and  charming  wife, 
and  promptly  acceded  to  the  request.  Then  a  reaction  took 
place  in  the  army,  and  both  officers  and  men  endeavored  to  have 
the  decision  reversed,  but  it  was  too  late. 

Early  in  April,  1542,  the  army  set  out  on  its  homeward  march. 
Two  missionaries,  Juan  de  Padilla  and  Luis  de  Escalona,  es- 
pecially desired  to  remain  and  labor  among  the  natives ;  and  con- 
sequently were  left,  with  the  best  provision  that  could  be  made 
for  their  comfort.  The  former,  it  is  said,  was  martyred  close 
to  Quivira ;  and  the  other  doubtless  also  wore  the  crown  and  palm, 
as  nothing  was  heard  of  him  by  Espejo  or  others  who  afterward 
visited  the  country.  At  Cibola,  a  number  of  the  Mexican  In- 
dians, pleased  with  the  country,  concluded  to  remain  and  found 
new  homes ;  and  here  several  of  them  were  met  forty  years  after- 
wards when  Espejo  reached  that  town. 

At  Chichilticale,  the  army  met  re-enforcements  and  military 
stores,  but  too  late  to  alter  the  programme  of  retreat;  and,  as 
soon  as  the  Mexican  settlements  were  reached,  the  forces  began 
to  melt  away,  the  men  returning  to  their  homes  by  the  shortest 
routes,  so  that  when  Ooronado  arrived  at  the  city  of  Mexico  he 
could  barely  muster  a  hundred  men.  His  lack  of  success  caused 
him  to  be  coldly  received  by  the  viceroy,  who  had  built  high 
hopes  on  the  success  of  the  expedition ;  and  soon  after  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  governorship,  and  never  again  takes  a  prominent 
place  in  history. 

Thus  ended  this  expedition,  which  though  it  accomplished  noth- 
ing of  lasting  importance,  yet  will  always  be  of  great  interest 
as  giving  us  through  the  excellent  history  of  Castafieda  and  the 
narrations  contained  in  the  reports  of  Ooronado  and  an  anony- 
mous document  called  the.  Relacion  del  Suceso,  the  first  accurate 
description  of  the  towns,  the  people,  and  the  customs  of  New 
Mexico. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Friar  Ruiz  and  Espejo 

Almost  fort}''  years  passed  after  the  unsuccessful  expedition  of 
Coronado,  before  any  further  attempts,  of  which  we  have  certain 
knowledge,  were  made  to  penetrate  into  New  Mexico.  The  ad- 
venturous spirits  of  that  time  had  fresh  fields  enough  in  Central 
and  South  America  to  occupy  all  of  their  attention,  without  re- 
turning to  any  land  which  had  already  been  the  scene  of  failure. 

The  next  expedition  was  not  military  in  its  character,  nor  did 
it  have  the  gratification  of  ambition  or  cupidity  for  its  object; 
but  it  was  undertaken  by  missionaries,  whose  sole  object  was  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel. 

Agustin  Ruiz  or  Rodriguez,  a  Franciscan  friar,  laboring  at 
San  Bartolome,  in  northeastern  Mexico,  heard,  in  the  year  1581, 
accounts  of  great  provinces  along  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  north 
which  the  Spaniards  had  never  visited,  and  among  whose  in- 
habitants true  religion  was  unknown.  So  interested  did  he  be- 
come in  these  unknown  nations,  that  he  determined  at  all  haz- 
ards to  penetrate  their  country  and  carry  to  them  a  knowledge 
of  Christianity.  After  some  delay,  he  received  the  necessary  per- 
mission from  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  then 
lost  no  time  in  arranging  to  start  on  his  mission.  Two  of  his 
brothers  in  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  Francisco  Lopez  and  Juan 
de  Santa  Maria,  resolved  to  accompany  him ;  and  they  were  pro- 
vided with  an  escort  of  nine  soldiers  under  a  captain  named 
Chamuscado,  to  whom  were  also  entrusted  the  secular  and  prac- 
tical duties  of  inquiring  as  to  any  mines  that  might  exist  in  the 
new  country.  Eight  Indians  and  one  half-breed  accompanied 
the  missionaries  as  ser^^ants. 

After  a  long  northerly  march  of  about  five  hundred  miles  they 


80  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

at  length  arrived  among  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley,  and  reached  a  town  called  Puara,  or  Puaray,  then  of 
much  importance,  but  long  since  destroyed;  and  which  was  sit- 
uated about  eight  miles  north  of  the  present  site  of  Albuquerque. 
At  this  point  the  soldiers  absolutely  refused  to  go  further,  on 
account  of  the  danger  encountered  in  a  strange  country,  sur- 
rounded by  Indians,  and  without  means  of  retreat.  The  friars 
endeavored  to  persuade  them  to  continue  the  journey;  and  the 
soldiers  in  turn  tried  to  persuade  the  friars  to  retrace  their 
steps  to  Mexico.  Neither  would  yield,  and  so  they  separated: 
the  soldiers  of  the  crown  returned  to  the  ease  and  security  of 
their  garrison  life,  and  the  Soldiers  of  the  Cross  went  forward, 
braving  danger  and  deatli,  to  carry  tlie  Avords  of  salvation  to  the 
heathen  regions  beyond. 

The  friars  continued  as  far  north  as  Galisteo,  at  that  time 
an  important  pueblo;  and  then  concluded  to  send  one  of  their 
number  back  to  Mexico  in  order  to  bring  more  brethren  into  the 
field,  which  they  found  was  too  extensive  for  their  small  number. 
Brother  Juan  de  Santa  Maria  was  selected  for  the  journey.  He 
proceeded  directly  south  toward  El  Paso,  but  on  his  way,  when 
near  the  pueblo  of  San  Pablo,  he  was  killed  by  the  Indians,  while 
quietly  resting  under  a  tree.  The  other  two  settled  in  Puara  in 
order  to  learn  the  Indian  language  together,  but  were  soon  sep- 
arated by  the  murder  of  Brother  Lopez  who  was  violently  struck 
on  the  head,  while  engaged  in  prayer  in  a  secluded  spot. 

Friar  Ruiz  was  now  alone,  and  while  he  keenly  felt  his  isola- 
tion and  realized  his  danger,  he  resolutely  determined  to  remain 
at  his  post.  But  his  death  was  certain  and  unavoidable,  for  the 
destruction  of  all  the  missionaries  had  been  decreed  by  the 
Pueblo  authorities,  and  but  a  few  days  elapsed  before  he  like- 
wise received  a  martyr 's  crown  at  the  pueblo  of  Santiago. 

Thus  ended  this  peaceful  expedition  into  New  Mexico  by  the 
death  of  the  three  devoted  men  who  undertook  the  work.  But 
their  labors  were  not  in  vain,  for  the  permanent  colonization  of 
the  country  was  the  direct  result  of  their  action ;  and  the  proverb 
that  "the  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church"  was 


FRIAR  RUIZ  AND  ESPEJO  81 

illustrated  by  the  baptism  within  fifty  years  of  over  34,000  In- 
dians, and  the  erection  in  New  Mexico,  in  the  same  time,  by 
brother  Franciscans,  of  over  forty  churches. 

EsPEjo's  Expedition- 
No  sooner  had  the  Franciscans  in  Mexico  heard  from  the  re- 
turning soldiers  of  the  peril  in  which  the  three  missionaries  were 
left,  than  they  made  an  urgent  appeal  that  relief  might  be  sent. 
This  reached  the  ear  and  touched  the  heart  of  Don  Antonio  de 
Espejo,  a  wealthy  Spaniard  engaged  in  mining  at  Santa  Barbara, 
who  generously  offered  himself  and  his  fortune  to  the  work,  if 
an  expedition  could  be  regularly  authorized.  This  was  soon 
accomplished  by  obtaining  an  official  license  of  authorization 
from  Governor  Ontrueros  of  New  Biscay,  which  also  included  the 
right  to  enlist  all  the  soldiers  necessary  for  the  success  of  the 
undertaking. 

Don  Antonio  was  a  man  of  great  energy  of  character  and  lost 
no  time  in  making  preparations  for  the  expedition.  He  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  the  community  to  such  an  extent  that  soldiers 
hastened  to  enlist  under  his  banner,  and  in  a  short  time  all  was 
in  readiness.  On  the  tenth  day  of  December,  1582,  this  expedi- 
tion commenced  its  march  from  San  Bartolome,  and  moved 
directly  north,  through  the  present  state  of  Chihuahua,  toward 
New  Mexico.  On  the  waj^  after  passing  the  Conchos  river,  the 
little  army  marched  through  two  tribes,  called  Passaguates  and 
Tobosos,  before  reaching  the  Rio  Grande,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
valley  of  that  river  was  entered  that  any  high  grade  of  native 
civilization  was  seen.  Here  the  first  province  entered  was  called 
Humanos,  which  contained  a  number  of  large  towns  of  superior 
construction,  the  houses  being  of  stone,  cemented  with  lime  and 
mortar.  This  nation  was  so  extensive  that  Espejo  was  twelve 
days  in  passing  through  their  countn^;  and  it  appeared  to  have 
been  visited  by  Cabeza  de  Yaca  in  his  journey  across  the  conti- 
nent, as  the  people  mentioned  having  been  taught  certain  things 
by  three  white  men  and  a  negro. 

Two  other  provinces  were  successively  passed  through,  in  both 


82  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


(V 


of  which  the  people  were  well-dressed  in  chamois  skins  and  cotton 
clothes,  and  had  many  ornaments  made  of  feathers ;  and  then  the 
army  had  to  traverse  a  long  stretch  of  uninhabited  country,  and 
afterwards  found  themselves  in  beautiful  groves  of  cottonwoods, 
and  to  the  north  of  this  entered  an  important  province  situated 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  present  pueblo  of  Isleta,  of  which  that 
pueblo  is  probably  one  of  the  ancient  towns.  The  houses  here 
were  four  stories  high  and  well-constructed,  and  the  people  not 
only  wore  clothing  of  cotton  and  deer-skins,  but  also  boots  and 
shoes,  of  which  the  soles  were  made  of  the  stoutest  and  thickest 
leather.  The  people  were  very  industrious,  raising  large  quanti- 
ties of  cotton  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  cereals ;  one  chief  mak- 
ing Espejo  a  present  of  no  less  than  four  thousand  bolls  of  cot- 
ton.   This  province  contained  ten  towns. 

Proceeding  up  the  valley,  the  Spaniards  soon  came  near  to 
Puara  (called  by  Espejo  Poala)  and  then  for  the  first  time 
learned  of  the  death  of  the  three  friars.  They  were  naturally 
much  grieved  to  find  that  so  far  as  sa^dng  their  lives  was  con- 
cerned, the  expedition  was  in  vain.  As  much  was  heard,  how- 
ever, of  the  richness  of  the  surrounding  country,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  make  brief  explorations  in  various  directions  before 
returning  to  Mexico.  The  first  of  these  was  made  by  Espejo 
himself  with  only  two  men,  who  traveled  easterly  for  two  days 
and  found  a  province  on  the  border  of  the  great  buffalo  pjains, 
containing  eleven  towns  and  forty  thousand  inhabitants,  where 
the  people  had  great  herds  of  cattle,  and  the  wealthier  classes 
had  considerable  gold  and  silver  in  their  houses. 

This  encouraged  him  to  undertake  a  much  more  important  ex- 
pedition. He  proceeded  northerly  up  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  pro- 
vince of  the  Queres  Indians,  where  he  found  five  villages,  the 
population  of  which  he  estimated  at  14,000.  He  then  traveled 
westerly  to  a  province  called  Cunames  and  which  also  contained 
five  towns  of  which  the  pueblo  of  Zia  was  the  m^ost  important. 
This  town  was  at  that  time  much  larger  than  at  present,  and  was 
built  around  eight  market  places  or  plazas,  the  houses  being  the 
best  that  the  Spaniards  had  seen  during  their  expedition,  stuc- 


FEIAE  RUIZ  AND  ESPEJO  83 

coed  and  painted  with  many  colors.  The  people  were  well  ad- 
vanced in  civilization  and  among  other  manufactured  articles 
showed  curious  and  beautiful  mantles,  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention from  their  visitors.  Continuing  westerly,  Espejo  next 
found  a  people  whom  he  calls  Amies  and  who  are  easily  recog- 
nizable as  being  the  Jemez  Indians.  They  lived  in  seven  towns 
quite  similar  to  those  previously  seen  and  their  number  was  com- 
puted to  be  thirty  thousand. 

Fifteen  leagues  farther  on  the  little  expedition  arrived  at  the 
point  which  is  the  most  easily  distinguishable  in  all  the  early 
chronicles^  on  account  of  its  situation  on  the  summit  of  a  high 
rock.  This  was  the  pueblo  of  A  coma,  and  its  commanding  posi-i 
tion  particularly  impressed  the  Spaniards.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  this  trip  Espejo  had  been  received  with  great  hospitality, 
but  in  this  respect  the  people  of  Acoma  exceeded  their  neighbors, 
entertaining  the  Spaniards  with  their  national  games  and  dances 
and  bringing  presents  of  every  kind  they  considered  acceptable. 

After  remaining  three  days  at  Acoma,  Espejo  proceeded  direct-  t 
ly  to  Zuni,  which  he  distinctly  identifies  as  the  place  called  Ci-  / 
bola  by  the  preceding  Spanish  writers,  following  the  same  route 
taken  by  Coronado's  expedition  on  its  return  to  Mexico;  and,  on 
arriving  at  that  important  pueblo,  was  surprised  to  find  three  of 
the  Mexican  Indians  who  had  remained  there  for  the  forty  years 
since  they  were  left  by  Coronado.  These  men,  whose  names  were 
Andres  of  Culiacan,  Gaspar  of  Mexico,  and  Antonio  of  Guadala- 
jara, had  almost  entirely  forgotten  their  native  language  during 
their  long  sojourn  at  Cibola,  but  their  delight  on  seeing  the  Span- 
iards can  be  imagined.  They  were  anxious  to  be  of  any  service 
possible,  and  so  informed  Espejo  of  a  rich  country  in  which  the 
precious  metals  abounded  and  which  was  situated  far  to  the 
westward  on  a  great  lake.  They  said  that  Coronado  had  been 
anxious  to  visit  it,  but  could  not,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  water. 

This  story  was  sufficiently  alluring  to  induce  Espejo  to  make 
the  attempt,  which  he  did  with  nine  soldiers,  leaving  the  re- 
mainder of  his  little  company  at  Zuni.  After  traveling  twenty- 
eight  leagues  he  came  to  a  province  which  was  undoubtedly  the 


84  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

modern  Moqtii,  whose  population,  with  his  usual  over-estimate, 
he  placed  at  50,000.  He  spent  some  days  here,  conciliating  the 
natives,  and  then,  having  secured  new  guides  who  were  acquaint- 
ed with  the  country  beyond,  he  proceeded  on  the  quest  for  the 
land  of  gold  and  silver.  In  this  he  was  not  without  success,  as 
he  gives  an  enthusiastic  description  of  a  mine  containing  a  vein 
of  silver  of  remarkable  width  from  which  he  took  rich  specimens 
with  his  own  hands.  This  was  in  a  mountainous  region  which 
must  have  been  a  little  north  of  the  modern  Prescott,  as  his 
journey  did  not  extend  as  far  as  the  Colorado  river,  although  he 
heard  much  of  it  from  the  Indian  guides  who  endeavored  to  ex- 
cite his  interest  by  telling  him  that  it  was  eight  leagues  in  width ! 
They  also  agreed  with  the  reports  that  he  had  heard  in  Zufii  as  to 
the  *' great  lake,"  which  must  have  been  more  imaginative  even 
than  the  width  of  the  river. 

But  Espejo  was  now  anxious  to  return,  and  so  journeyed  back" 
to  Zuiii  where  he  found  Father  Beltran,  and  the  soldiers  left 
with  him,  in  good  health,  and  was  rejoiced  to  be  informed  that 
they  had  so  conducted  themselves  as  to  gain  the  friendship  of  all 
the  natives.  Nevertheless,  they  were  impatient  to  see  Mexico 
again,  and  so,  after  proceeding  to  his  headquarters  in  the  valley 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  he  allowed  them  to  return  to  their  homes 
with  one  other  soldier  who  desired  to  accompany  them,  leaving 
him  with  but  eight  companions  in  his  further  explorations. 

He  now  turned  his  attention  northward  and  followed  the  banks 
of  the  Rio  Grande  until  he  found  a  province  on  the  east  of  the 
river  containing  about  25,000  people,  well-dressed  and  living  in 
houses  many  stories  in  height.  This  was  in  a  mountainous  coun- 
try, which  he  called  Ilubates,  where  there  were  many  evergreens, 
and  probably  included  that  part  of  New  Mexico  which  contains 
the  Tehua  Pueblos  extending  from  Tesuque  and  Nambe  to  Santa 
Clara  and  San  Juan.  It  could  not  have  been  further  north,  be- 
cause while  here  he  heard  of  the  towns  of  the  Tanos,  which  he 
says  were  only  one  day's  travel  distant,  and  he  proceeded  to  visit 
them,  passing  in  the  vicinity  of  Santa  Fe  and  going  as  far  as  the 
pueblo  of  Pecos.    The  population  of  the  Tanos  province  he  places. 


FEIAR  RUIZ  AND  ESPEJO  85 

from  information  received,  at  40,000,  although  he  did  not  visit 
all  of  the  towns.  Contrary  to  his  usual  experience,  he  was  not 
received  with  cordiality  by  these  people,  who,  on  the  contrary, 
refused  to  allow  him  to  enter  their  towns ;  and  this  seems  to  have 
led  not  only  to  discouragement  but  to  a  feeling  of  fear  of  what 
might  occur  if  the  Indians  became  really  hostile. 

From  his  extended  explorations  Espejo  was  well  satisfied  of  the 
wealth  of  the  country  and  especially  of  its  mineral  riches,  but  he 
concluded  that  a  much  larger  and  more  powerful  expedition  than 
that  which  he  commanded  was  necessary  to  insure  success  in 
colonization  or  in  conquest.  So  he  decided  to  return  to  Mexico 
and  look  to  the  future  for  an  opportunity  of  utilizing  the  store 
of  information  as  to  this  new  country  in  the  north,  which  he 
called  New  Mexico. 

Instead  of  retracing  his  route  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  he 
was  induced  by  the  advice  of  guides  to  follow  the  untried  path 
down  the  Pecos  river,  and  thus  was  the  first  European  to  explore 
the  course  of  that  stream.  He  calls  it  the  "River  of  Cows,"  be- 
cause they  —  the  buflPaloes  —  were  so  numerous,  that  during  the 
whole  distance,  they  were  found  everywhere.  Starting  in  the  be- 
ginning of  July  he  followed  it  almost  or  quite  to  the  point  where 
it  enters  the  Rio  Grande,  and  then,  crossing  the  latter,  proceeded 
by  way  of  the  Conchos  to  his  home  in  New  Biscay,  where  he 
arrived  on  September  20,  1583 ;  and  where  he  wrote  an  interest- 
ing "relacion"  of  his  journey  and  the  new  country,  of  which  he 
considered  himself  the  first  discoverer,  to  the  viceroy  of  New 
Spain,  who  transmitted  it  to  the  king  and  his  Council  of  the 
Indies. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Attempts  at  Colonization,  1585-1598 

The  discoveries  of  Espejo  attracted  universal  interest,  and  his 
narration  was  immediately  published  in  Spain  and  Rome,  and 
within  five  years  had  been  translated  into  French  by  Luc  de  la 
Porte  and  published  in  Paris  in  1588,  and  has  since  then  appeared 
in  many  languages  and  editions.  The  immediate  result  of  the 
news  of  these  discoveries  carried  to  JMexico  first  by  Father  Bel- 
tran  and  his  companions  and  afterwards  by  Espejo  himself  was 
to  arouse  in  several  ambitious  breasts  a  desire  to  conquer  and 
colonize  the  regions  thus  made  known.  To  do  this  legally  re- 
quired an  authorization  either  from  the  king  or  from  the  viceroy 
of  New  Spain,  and  applicants  in  considerable  numbers  soon  ad- 
dressed themselves  to  those  high  dignitaries. 

The  most  natural  applicant  for  this  opportunity  for  fame  and 
conquest  was  Espejo  himself,  and  he  made  his  appeal  directly  to 
the  king,  forwarding  a  full  account  of  the  success  which  had  at- 
tended his  previous  efforts  with  a  proposed  plan  of  operations 
for  a  new  expedition.  His  plan  was  to  provide  for  permanent 
colonization  by  organizing  a  party  of  400  men,  the  greater  part 
to  be  soldiers,  a  hundred  of  whom  should  be  accompanied  by 
their  wives  and  families;  and  taking  with  them  large  droves  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  The  religious  side  of  the  enterprise  was 
not  to  be  neglected,  as  a  number  of  Franciscan  friars  were  to 
form  part  of  the  expedition,  for  the  benefit  of  both  colonists  and 
natives.  He  stated  that  he  had  already  expended  ten  thousand 
ducats  on  his  previous  expedition  but  he  was  now  prepared  to 
spend  ten  times  that  amount  in  the  new  enterprise;  and  he  of- 
fered ample  security  for  the  fulfillment  of  all  the  obligations 
assumed.     For  reasons  which  we  cannot  now  understand,  but 


ATTEMPTS  AT  COLONIZATION,  1585-1598      87 

wliich  had  their  origin  probably  in  the   unfriendliness  of  the 
viceroy,  this  proposition  was  not  accepted. 

About  the  same  time,  Don  Francisco  Diaz  de  Vargas,  alguazil 
mayor  of  the  city  of  Puebla  de  los  Angeles,  made  a  similar  appli- 
cation, although  his  proposition  was  not  so  favorable,  as  it  pro- 
vided that  he  should  first  visit  the  northern  region  with  a  party 
of  fifty  or  sixty  men,  and,  if  an  examination  should  show  that 
colonization  was  desirable,  he  would  then  proceed  with  that  work 
to  a  final  success.  Another  aspirant  for  the  honors  of  leadership 
was  Don  Cristobal  Martin  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  who  offered  to 
fit  out  an  expedition  of  two  or  three  hundred  men  and  to  expend 
fifty  thousand  dollars  of  his  own  money  in  the  exploration  and 
colonization  of  New  Mexico.  Neither  of  these  applications  was 
successful,  and  so  time  passed  until  1589  when  Juan  Bautista 
de  Lomas,  who  had  been  very  successful  in  mining  adventures  in 
New  Galicia,  and  had  occupied  various  public  offices  in  that  pro- 
vince, applied  for  official  permission  to  march  into  New  Mexico. 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  \Tceroy  and  his  application  was  recom- 
mended by  that  high  official,  but  again  a  refusal  was  the  answer 
which  came  from  Spain. 

Castano  de  Sosa 

It  is  difficult  to  say  how  many  years  would  have  elapsed  before 
any  new  expedition  would  have  penetrated  into  New  Mexico  if 
every  man  ambitious  to  make  the  attempt  had  waited  until  he  had 
the  formal  authorization  of  the  king,  but  in  the  year  1590  Don 
Gaspar  Castano  de  Sosa,  who  had  held  many  offices  in  the  colo- 
nies and  was  then  lieutenant-governor  of  the  province  of  Nueva 
Leon,  concluded  to  act  on  the  authority  he  already  possessed,  of 
colonizing  the  vicinity  of  the  province  in  which  he  v/as  holding 
office  without  further  formality.  The  result  was  one  of  the  most 
interesting  expeditions  of  that  time. 

He  started  from  the  town  of  Almaden  on  July  27,  1590,  with  a 
party  of  no  less  than  170  persons,  including  some  women  and 
children,  and  an  ample  supply  of  provisions.  Taking  a  new 
route  from  that  which  had  been  pursued  by  any  of  his  prede- 


88  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

cessors,  he  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Pecos  and  then  pro- 
ceeded up  the  valley  of  the  latter  until  the  advance  guard  of  his 
expedition  arrived  at  the  pueblo  of  Pecos  itself  a  few  days  before 
Christmas.  This  party  was  kindly  received  in  the  first  place,  but, 
after  passing  the  night  in  the  pueblo,  they  were  suddenly  attacked 
and  driven  out  of  town  after  three  of  their  number  had  been 
wounded.  Immediate  information  of  this  event  was  sent  to  Cas- 
taiio,  who  was  encamped  with  the  larger  portion  of  his  expedition 
at  a  point  lower  down  on  the  Pecos,  called  Urraca.  Without 
delay  he  marched  against  the  town  with  all  his  available  force, 
and,  after  some  parleying,  made  an  attack  on  New  Year's  Day, 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  place;  but  the  Indians,  as 
had  been  their  custom  ever  since  their  earliest  conflicts  with  the 
Spaniards,  entirely  deserted  the  town  on  the  second  night  and  re- 
tired to  the  mountains,  leaving  the  Spaniards  in  undisputed  con- 
trol of  the  vacant  pueblo.  We  have  another  description  of  this 
interesting  pueblo  from  the  historian  of  this  expedition,  who 
tells  us  that  it  was  composed  of  buildings  four  or  five  stories  in 
height,  built  around  five  plazas  and  containing  no  less  than  six- 
teen estufas;  and  that  the  houses  contained  potteiy  of  much 
beauty  and  different  from  any  which  they  had  seen  in  Mexico. 
Castano  found  here  an  immense  accumulation  of  corn,  stored 
away  according  to  the  Pueblo  custom,  not  only  for  use  during 
that  winter,  but  for  any  emergency  that  might  occur  thereafter, 
and  which  the  Spaniards  estimated  to  amount  to  30,000  fanegas. 
A  portion  of  this  was  sent  to  the  non-military  part  of  the  expe- 
dition, then  encamped  at  Urraca,  and  Castano  then  started  with 
his  troops  to  explore  the  remainder  of  the  country. 

As  nearly  as  we  can  ascertain,  from  the  rather  meagre  descrip- 
tions in  the  report  he  afterwards  wrote,  he  first  marched  north- 
westerly to  the  country  north  of  Santa  Fe  and  visited  six  pueblos 
which  submitted  without  objection  to  his  claim  of  obedience.  He 
then  reached  the  Rio  Grande  where  he  visited  two  towns,  one  of 
which  was  probably  the  pueblo  of  San  Juan,  and  proceeded  up 
the  river  until  he  came  in  sight  of  a  very  large  pueblo  where  the 
houses  were  reported  to  be  seven  or  nine  stories  high    and  w^hich 


ATTEMPTS  AT  COLONIZATION,  1585-1598     89 

was  no  doubt  the  present  pueblo  of  Taos;  but  he  did  not  enter, 
as  the  inhabitants  presented  a  formidable  appearance  and  the 
weather  had  now  become  so  cold  that  the  whole  party  was  anxious 
to  return  to  a  warmer  section.  So  they  returned  down  the  valley 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  crossing  to  two  pueblos  situated  on  the  west 
side  of  the  river,  and  afterwards  re-crossing  to  another  on  the 
east,  which  may  have  been  San  Ildefonso.  Continuing  down  the 
valley,  they  found  four  towns  belonging  to  the  Queres  nation, 
very  near  together,  three  of  which  were  probably  Cochiti,  Santo 
Domingo,  and  San  Felipe.  To  two  other  pueblos  which  they 
visited  in  the  same  vicinity  they  gave  the  names  of  San  Marcos 
and  San  Cristobal,  but  these  may  not  have  been  the  same  places 
known  by  those  names  in  more  recent  times,  but  were  probably 
nearer  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

Having  thus  visited  twenty  of  the  Indian  villages  and  explored 
the  greater  part  of  the  Upper  Rio  Grande  Valley,  Castano  con- 
cluded to  establish  a  permanent  colony  to  w^hich  all  of  his  party, 
including  the  women  and  the  animals  which  had  been  left  at  Ur- 
raca,  should  be  brought.  This  he  established  at  San  Marcos  and 
on  the  eighteenth  of  February,  1591,  all  of  the  outlying  parties 
had  arrived  and  arrangements  were  made  for  the  erection  of  per- 
manent buildings.  Attention  was  then  given  to  the  mineral  riches 
of  the  country,  and  exploring  parties  were  sent  out  in  various 
directions,  which  included  the  modern  mining  districts  of  the 
Cerrillos,  the  Ortiz,  and  the  Tuerto  Mountains.  In  the  course 
of  these  joumeyings,  two  other  pueblos  were  visited,  which  were 
probably  those  of  Galisteo  and  San  Lazaro,  or  the  San  Marcos 
pueblo  of  later  times. 

As  the  country  to  the  south  had  not  yet  been  explored,  another 
expedition  was  now  sent  down  the  river  to  the  province  of  the 
Tihuas,  in  which  the  three  Franciscans  had  been  killed  in  the 
time  of  Friar  Ruiz,  and  here  they  visited  no  less  than  nine  Indian 
towns  besides  seeing  five  others,  part  of  which  were  on  the  east 
and  part  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  Several  of  these  were  de- 
serted because  the  people  w^ere  afraid  that  this  new  expedition  of 
the  Spaniards  might  have  come  to  avenge  the  death  of  the  priests. 


90  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Thus  within  less  than  a  year  Castafio  had  visited  almost  all  of 
the  inhabited  portion  of  New  Mexico,  and,  without  the  loss  of  a 
single  man,  had  obtained  the  control  of  no  less  than  thirty-three 
pueblos;  and  we  might  well  have  dated  the  permanent  coloniza- 
tion of  New  Mexico  from  this  time  and  have  hailed  Castafio  as 
being  the  leader  in  its  occupation,  had  not  the  jealousy  of  the 
authorities  of  Spain  and  Mexico  brought  to  an  untimely  end  this 
expedition  which  had  achieved  such  remarkable  success.  For  at 
this  point  Castafio  received  news  that  there  was  another  party  of 
Spaniards  which  had  invaded  the  country  and  was  not  far  distant. 
He  hailed  this  information  with  joy  as  he  supposed  that  they 
were  reenforcements,  but  on  meeting  the  new  comers  he  was  sur- 
prised to  find  that  they  consisted  of  fifty  soldiers  under  Captain 
Juan  Morlete  who  had  been  sent  with  orders  to  arrest  him  for 
having  undertaken  this  expedition  without  proper  authority.  He 
made  no  resistance  but  allowed  himself  to  be  placed  in  irons  and 
re-conducted  with  his  whole  party  to  Mexico,  thus  abandoning 
the  labors  which  had  so  nearly  resulted  in  complete  success. 

BONILLA  AND  HuMA5;'A 

One  other  unfortunate  attempt  at  exploration  deserves  atten- 
tion before  we  come  to  the  actual  colonization  of  the  country. 
About  1595,  a  party  was  sent  out  by  the  governor  of  New  Biscay 
to  punish  certain  northern  Indians  who  had  been  committing 
depredations,  the  expedition  being  commanded  by  a  Portuguese 
named  Francisco  Leiva  Bonilla.  After  he  had  accomplished  his 
mission,  the  ambitious  Bonilla  concluded  to  use  his  little  force  in 
the  conquest  of  New  Mexico  and,  if  possible,  to  reach  the  ever- 
alluring  Quivira.  He  marched  through  a  part  of  New  Mexico 
and  then  started  easterly  across  the  buffalo  plains  toward  the 
object  of  his  aspirations.  Here  a  quarrel  arose  between  himself 
and  one  of  his  lieutenants  named  Juan  de  Humafia,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  the  captain  and  in  the  assumption  of  the 
command  by  Humafia.  This  man,  whose  ambition  equaled  that  of 
his  late  commander,  pressed  on  towards  the  east  and  succeeded  in 
reaching  a  point  on  the  great  grassy  prairie  of  Southern  Kansas 


ATTEMPTS  AT  COLONIZATION,  1585-1598      91 

or  Northern  Oklahoma,  which  was  ever  after  referred  to  on  ac- 
count of  its  sad  history  as  the  ' '  Matanza. ' '  The  Indians  of  that 
region  had  been  patiently  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  bring 
about  his  destruction  and  at  this  point  they  concentrated  their, 
forces,  set  fire  to  the  grass  which  surrounded  his  camp,  and  then, 
just  before  daylight,  rushed  upon  the  half -awakened  Spaniards 
and  destroyed  the  entire  party  with  the  exception  of  one  mulatto 
girl  and  a  man  named  Alonzo  Sanchez.  The  news  of  this  disas- 
trous event  spread  with  great  rapidity  among  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  plains  and  to  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  ex- 
pedition is  often  referred  to  in  subsequent  history  as  that  of  ''the 
unfortunate  Humana, ' '  the  original  leader  being  apparently  for- 
gotten. A  Mexican  Indian,  named  Jose  or  Jusepe,  had  deserted 
the  party  before  the  final  catastrophe  and  went  to  New  Mexico, 
where  he  was  seen  years  afterwards  by  Oiiate  and  became  of  con- 
siderable service  as  an  interpreter. 


CHAPTER  IX 

The  Conquest  hy  Onate 

After  this  long  series  of  fruitless  efforts,  success  was  at  last 
to  be  attained  under  the  leadership  of  Don  Juan  de  Oiiate.  This 
cavalier  was  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Zacatecas,  whose  ambition  was 
so  strongly  excited  by  the  reports  from  the  new  El  Dorado  at 
the  north,  that  he  made  application  in  1595  to  Viceroy  Ve- 
lasco  for  authorization  to  colonize  the  country,  offering  to  take 
with  him  at  least  200  soldiers  and  all  the  appliances  for  success, 
at  his  own  expense.  He  was  not  only  rich  and  popular  but  had 
special  prestige  on  account  of  the  brilliant  reputation  of  his 
father,  Don  Cristobal  de  Onate,  and  his  own  marriage  to  Dona 
Isabel  de  Toboso,  a  grand-daughter  of  Fernando  Cortez  and  a 
daughter  of  Montezuma. 

All  this  aided  his  application,  and  the  permission,  with  accom- 
panying grants  of  power,  was  given  in  due  time,  on  condition  that 
the  conquest  and  colonization  should  be  completed  within  five 
years. 

Armed  with  this  authority,  Onate  lost  no  time  in  organizing 
his  expedition,  the  recruiting  standard  was  set  up  in  the  Grand 
Plaza  of  the  city  of  Mexico  by  Vicente  Saldivar,  a  gallant  nephew 
of  Onate,  and  everything  promised  successful  results,  until  the 
arrival  of  a  new  viceroy  in  the  place  of  Velasco  changed  the  as- 
pect of  affairs,  and  instead  of  official  encouragement,  every  ob- 
stacle possible  was  placed  in  the  way  of  the  expedition. 

Much  delay  was  thus  occasioned,  and  the  final  authorization 
from  the  king  was  not  received  till  late  in  1597,  and  meanwhile 
the  army,  which  at  one  time  numbered  over  600  men,  had  be- 
come so  reduced  that  barely  130  could  be  mustered  for  final  in- 
spection.    To  meet  the  requirements  of  his  contract,  and  yet 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ONATE        .         93 

avoid  further  delay,  Onate  arranged  that  eighty  additional  troops 
should  be  enlisted,  to  follow  as  soon  as  possible,  and  started  on 
his  march  from  San  Bartolome  on  January  20,  1598. 

The  little  army  was  accompanied  by  a  large  number  of  fam- 
ilies for  colonization,  and  all  the  provisions  which  seemed  neces- 
sary for  success ;  it  included  ten  Franciscan  friars  for  the  spirit- 
ual welfare  of  the  new  kingdom.  Among  the  officers  were  a 
number  of  tried  merit  and  of  high  distinction,  including  the  two 
nephews  of  Onate,  Juan  and  Vicente  de  Saldivar,  and  Captain 
Gaspar  Villagra,  a  gallant  soldier  and  the  poet-historian  of  the 
expedition,  to  whom  posterity  is  indebted  for  the  most  extensive 
epic  ever  written  on  early  American  history.  This  poem,  entitled 
Historia  de  la  Nueva  Mexico;  contains  33  cantos,  constituting  no 
less  than  182  pages  of  ordinary  modern  print,  and  gives  a  minute 
as  well  as  graphic  narrative  of  all  the  events  of  the  march,  the 
conquest,  and  the  colonization,  from  first  to  last. 

Proceeding  slowly,  on  account  of  the  colonists  and  their  heavy 
wagons,  the  column  crossed  the  Conchos,  and  marched  through 
Chihuahua  until,  on  April  20,  it  reached  the  Rio  Grande  about 
twenty-five  miles  below  El  Paso.  At  this  point  they  rested  for 
some  days  and  then  continued  up  the  valley  until  the  30th  of 
April,  when  a  halt  was  made  in  a  beautiful  grove  on  the  west 
bank ;  and  here,  with  elaborate  ceremonies,  Oiiate  raised  the  royal 
standard  of  Spain,  and  formally  took  possession  of  New  Mexico 
and  all  the  adjoining  provinces,  for  God  and  the  king,  and  for 
himself  as  governor.  The  festivities  ended  at  night  with  the  per- 
formance of  an  original  comedy  written  for  the  occasion  by  Cap- 
tain Farfan,  which  may  be  considered  the  introduction  of  the 
drama  into  the  southwest. 

Four  days  later,  on  May  4,  1598,  the  expedition  crossed  the 
Rio  Grande  at  the  ford  which  has  become  famous  as  the  Pass  of 
the  North  (El  Paso  del  Norte),  and  proceeded  up  the  east  side  of 
the  river.  On  the  25th,  they  were  near  Mesilla,  and  there  Onate 
selected  5Q  or  60  of  the  most  valiant  and  best  mounted  men,  and 
with  them  pressed  forward  in  advance  of  the  main  body  of  the 
colonists,  who  could  move  but  slowly,  in  search  of  food,  which  was 


94  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

already  becoming  scarce.  Three  days  later  he  arrived  at  the  first 
of  the  Pueblo  Indian  towns,  which  were  situated  in  the  Socorro 
Valley  and  which  were  three  in  number.  The  first  was  near  the 
present  San  Marcial;  the  second  is  called  Qualicu  in  the  narra- 
tive of  Villagra,  but  always  thereafter  is  written  Senecu,  both  in 
record  and  on  map,  and  was  christened  San  Antonio  de  Senecu 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  is  the  San  Antonio  of  to-day ;  and  the  third 
was  called  Teipana.  In  all  of  them  they  were  hospitably  received 
by  the  natives,  and  at  Teipana  they  obtained  such  an  amount  of 
corn,  most  of  which  was  sent  back  to  the  main  body  of  the  expe- 
dition, that  on  account  of  this  timely  succor  the  town  was  named 
Socorro. 

Having  received  this  needed  relief,  Onate  remained  at  Socorro 
and  another  pueblo  a  short  distance  above  for  some  weeks,  while 
his  two  nephews  went  on  an  expedition  to  the  Piros  towns  to  the 
east,  of  which  Abo,  Quarra,  and  Tabira  (for  some  unknown 
reason  now  called  ' '  Gran  Quivira ' ' )  are  the  best  known. 

Resuming  the  march,  the  governor  and  his  party  reached  Puara, 
which  had  been  the  headquarters  of  Friar  Ruiz,  on  June  28; 
and  there  the  Franciscans  found  the  portraits  of  the  martyred 
Ruiz  and  Lopez,  roughly  drawn  on  a  wall  seventeen  years  before, 
and  almost  concealed  by  a  coat  of  yeso  whitewash.  Onate  went  on 
to  Guipui,  renamed  Santo  Domingo,  and  there,  on  July  7th,  he 
held  a  long  conference  with  seven  Pueblo  chieftains,  who  claimed 
to  represent  no  less  than  thirty-four  pueblos,  which  resulted  in 
the  Indians  kneeling  and  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Spanish  crown. 

On  the  9th,  he  reached  San  Ildefonso,  called  Bove  by  the  na- 
tives ;  and  on  the  11th  came  to  the  beautiful  valley  at  the  junction 
of  the  Chama  with  the  Rio  Grande,  where  he  found  the  pueblo 
of  Caypa  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river,  l^he  inhabitants  of 
this  place  showed  so  much  kindness  and  hospitality,  that  the 
Spaniards  added  to  the  ecclesiastical  name  of  San  Juan  the  words 
'^de  los  Caballeros"  (of  the  gentlemen),  and  the  title  San  Juan 
de  los  Caballeros  became  the  legal  designation  of  the  old  pueblo 
of  Caypa. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ONATE  95 

The  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  valley,  in  addition  to  this  warm 
reception,  struck  the  attention  of  the  Spaniards,  and  they  imme- 
diately determined  to  make  this  the  official  centre  of  the  new- 
kingdom.  The  very  next  day,  July  12,  1598,  they  commenced 
the  building  of  the  new  capital  on  the  west  side  of  the  Eio  Grande 
between  that  river  and  the  Chama,  in  a  place  called  Yunque,  by 
the  natives,  and  named  the  infant  city,  San  Gabriel.  Here  and 
across  the  river  at  the  old  pueblo  of  San  Juan,  Onate  made  his 
headquarters  for  some  time ;  and  the  ruins  of  the  first  capital  of 
New  Mexico  may  still  be  seen  from  the  windows  of  the  passing 
train,  at  the  modern  station  of  Chamita. 

This  date,  July  12,  1598,  may  be  considered  as  the  birthday 
^  of  European  settlement  in  New  Mexico;  and  its  anniversary 
should  be  celebrated  in  the  southwest,  as  the  date  of  the  landing 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  on  Plymouth  Rock,  on  December  21,  1620, 
is  annually  observed  wherever  the  memory  of  the  founders  of 
New  England  is  venerated. 

With  characteristic  energy  Onate  utilized  every  day  while 
awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  slow  caravan  of  his  colonists  at  San 
Gabriel.  Between  the  15th  and  the  20th  of  July  he  visited 
Picuris  and  Taos ;  and  then,  turning  southward,  rode  to  San  II- 
defonso,  to  the  pueblos  in  the  vicinity  of  Santa  Fe,  to  Galisteo, 
and  thence  to  Pecos,  where  he  arrived  on  thfe  25th  of  July.  Re- 
turning by  the  way  of  Santo  Domingo,  he  traveled  through  Zia 
and  Jemez,  visiting  some  hot  sulphur  springs  on  the  route ;  and 
again  found  himself  at  San  Gabriel  August  10th. 

The  long  line  of  colonists  was  now  arriving,  and  the  last  were 
in  the  new  city  by  the  18th ;  and  then  all  hands  were  called  on  to 
aid  in  the  building  of  the  church  —  the  first  Christian  temple  in 
New  Mexico.  It  did  not  need  to  be  very  large  to  meet  present  re- 
quirements, and  the  record  shows  that  it  was  completed  in  two 
weeks ;  but,  if  its  size  were  small,  the  ceremonies  of  its  dedication 
were  made  as  elaborate  as  possible  in  order  to  impress  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  the  natives.  These  ceremonies  took  place  on  Sep- 
tember 8th,  and  at  their  conclusion  there  was  a  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  a  conflict  between  the  Christians  and  the  Moors,  in 


96  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

which  the  former  by  the  timely  aid  of  St.  James  were  gloriously 
victorious,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  all  the  audience,  both  white 
and  red.  To  cement  the  friendship  of  the  Indians  and  afford 
them  entertainment  festivities  were  continued  for  an  entire  week ; 
all  kinds  of  sports,  both  of  the  Spaniards  and  of  the  Pueblos, 
being  indulged  in,  amid  much  rejoicing.  '(^ 

Advantage  was  taken  of  this  era  of  good  feeling,  and  of  the 
presence  of  large  numbers  of  Indians  from  all  directions,  to  hold 
a  great  meeting  of  the  Spanish  officials  and  ecclesiastics  and  the 
representatives  of  all  of  the  pueblos  that  could  be  reached,  under 
the  grandiloquent  title  of  '* Universal  Meeting  of  all  the  Earth'* 
(Junta  universal  de  toda  la  tierra).  On  this  occasion  their  obli- 
gations both  to  Cross  and  Crown  were  elaborately  explained  to  the 
Indians,  and  they  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  Spanish 
king,  and  agreed  to  receive  the  Franciscans  as  their  religious 
guides ;  though  at  the  same  time  they  tactfully  suggested  that  the 
Spaniards  certainly  would  not  wish  them  to  profess  a  belief  which 
they  did  not  yet  comprehend.  There  were  ten  friars  in  atten- 
dance under  Padre  Alonzo  Martinez,  as  comisario,  and  at  this 
time  he  divided  the  whole  inhabited  territory  of  New  Mexico  into 
seven  districts,  each  of  which  was  assigned  to  one  of  the  mis- 
sionaries. 

Having  attended  to  all  these  ceremonials,  Oiiate  resumed  his 
series  of  rapid  journeys,  by  which  he  was  determined  to  visit 
every  portion  of  the  new  kingdom  with  the  least  possible  delay. 
No  subsequent  governor  of  New  Mexico  has  ever  equalled  the 
first  of  the  long  official  line,  in  the  thoroughness  and  rapidity 
with  which  he  became  personally  acquainted  with  every  part  of 
the  vast  territory  over  which  he  presided,  and  this  is  the  more 
notable  when  we  remember  that  the  country  was  then  without 
roads  except  foot-paths. 

While  Vicente  de  Saldivar  was  sent  with  a  party  of  fifty  men 
to  explore  the  great  Buffalo  Plains  to  the  east,  Ofiate  himselt 
started  south  to  make  a  personal  visit  to  the  pueblos  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande  in  the  Salinas  country,  at  Abo,  Tabira,  etc.,  and  not 
content  with  that,  extended  his  journey  into  the  land  of  the  Ju- 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ONATE  97 

manos,  who  were  a  fine-looking  and  an  intelligent  people  al- 
though not  belonging  to  the  Pueblo  family.  From  here  he  crossed 
the  Rio  Grande  at  Puara  for  a  brief  rest  and  to  receive  news  of 
his  colony  and  make  arrangements  for  a  further  journey;  and 
then  started,  on  October  23,  on  the  longest  of  his  expeditions, 
extending  not  only  to  Acoma  and  Zuiii,  but  also  far  into  Arizona 
to  the  land  of  the  Moquis.  I 

He  was  received  everywhere  with  apparent  cordiality,  all  of  the 

■olos  accepting  the  Spanish  sovereignty  without  objection;  al- 

igh  it  afterwards  appeared  that  at  Acoma  a  number  of  leaders 

'  formed  a  conspiracy  to  kill  the  governor  by  luring  him  into 

.  estuf a  where  he  would  be  defenseless ;  and  that  he  only  escaped 
V  fortunately  declining  to  visit  the  chamber  selected  for  his 
uistruction.  The  Indians  of  Acoma  considered  their  citadel  im- 
pregnable, and  had  become  altogether  the  most  proud  and  self- 
confident  of  any  of  the  Pueblo  people ;  and  the  war  party  among 
them  was  strongly  opposed  to  even  a  peaceful  and  friendly  sub- 
mission to  the  Spanish  authority.  The  leader  of  this  party  was 
Zutucapan,  an  able  and  eloquent  chieftain,  who  was  determined 
to  destroy  the  invaders,  and  who  soon  inflamed  the  minds  of  the 
people  and  controlled  their  actions. 

The  wished-for  opportunity  soon  arrived.  Onate  had  left 
orders  at  San  Gabriel,  that  as  soon  as  Vicente  Saldivar  returned 
from  his  exploration,  his  brother  Juan,  who  had  been  left  in  com- 
mand, should  march  with  such  soldiers  as  could  be  spared  to  re- 
inforce the  governor  on  his  western  tour.  He  accordingly  started 
on  November  18th,  following  the  route  taken  by  Oiiate  from 
Puara,  by  the  way  of  Acoma.  Here  the  Indians  received  him  cor- 
dially and  invited  his  little  troup  to  the  summit  of  their  high 
mesa,  to  receive  provisions;  but  no  sooner  were  they  scattered 
in  various  houses  than  a  sudden  attack  was  made.  The  Spaniards 
fought  with  desperation  for  fully  three  hours  but  were  too  greatly 
over-matched  by  numbers ;  finally  Zutucapan  succeeded  in  killing 
Captain  Saldivar  himself  with  a  terrific  blow  of  his  macana,  and 
the  surviving  Spaniards,  of  whom  there  were  only  five,  threw 
themselves  down  from  the  cliff  as  the  only  chance  of  escape.    By 


98  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

what  seemed  a  miracle,  four  survived  the  tremendous  fall.  Three 
others  had  escaped  before ;  and  one  had  been  left  in  charge  of  the 
horses  when  the  party  climbed  up  the  steep  mesa ;  so  there  were 
eight  men  left  to  tell  the  tale.  They  sent  a  swift  messenger  to 
inform  Ofiate  of  the  catastrophe,  and  he  speedily  returned  to  San 
Gabriel  to  take  measures  to  punish  the  rebellious  pueblos. 

It  was  plain  that  this  had  to  be  done  without  delay,  no  matter 
at  what  sacrifice,  or  their  prestige  would  be  lost,  and  the  whole 
country  would  rise  against  them  and  either  destroy  or  drive  them 
out.  Yet  the  enterprise  was  a  most  dangerous  and  difficult  one, 
on  account  of  the  almost  impregnable  character  of  the  mesa  of 
Acoma,  which  was  a  gigantic  natural  fortress.  The  mesa  is  com- 
posed of  two  perpendicular  cliffs,  connected  by  a  narrow  ridge, 
and  to  each  clitf  there  is  but  one  steep,  almost  inaccessible  en- 
trance. A  dozen  resolute  men,  even  if  armed  only  with  stones, 
could  hold  the  main  approach  against  the  armies  of  the  world, 
in  the  days  before  artillery  changed  the  whole  science  of  warfare. 

The  enterprise  was  entrusted  to  Vicente  de  Saldivar,  brother  of 
the  captain  who  had  fallen,  and  he  was  given  command  of  a  little 
army  of  only  seventy  men,  but  each  one  selected  for  his  bravery 
and  prowess.  No  more  gallant  forlorn  hope  ever  marched  into  the 
jaws  of  death  than  this  little  band  which  set  forth  from  San 
Gabriel  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  brethren  and  to  uphold  the 
honor  of  the  Spanish  arms. 

On  the  21st  of  January,  1599,  they  came  in  sight  of  the  great 
cliff,  and  could  see  upon  the  summit  the  crowd  of  warriors  pre- 
pared to  defend  their  families  and  their  homes.  Its  perpendicu- 
alr  walls  seemed  an  insurmountable  barrier  that  made  capture 
impossible.  And  so  they  were,  against  direct  attack.  But  what 
might  not  succumb  to  force  might  be  gained  by  cunning,  and  Don 
Vicente  laid  his  plans  accordingly. 

In  the  darkness  of  the  night,  with  a  dozen  chosen  comrades,  he 
concealed  himself  in  the  clefts  of  the  smaller  cliff.  Then  at  break 
of  day,  all  the  remainder  of  the  little  army,  which  seemed  the 
whole,  made  a  fierce  attack  on  the  main  entrance  to  the  larger 
mesa,  desperately  attempting  to  gain  the  summit,  up  the  narrow 
passage,  which  is  the  only  way  of  ascent.    The  Indians  were  pre- 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ONATE  99 

pared  and  easily  withstood  the  attack,  and  soon  hurled  back  the 
advance  of  the  Spaniards. 

But  meanwhile,  all  unseen,  Saldivar's  little  band  had  gained 
the  top  of  the  other  cliff  and  stood  upon  a  level  with  their  foes. 
Then  came  a  fierce  struggle  at  the  narrow  pass.  More  Spaniards 
folMwed  Saldivar's  dozen  up  the  steep  side  of  the  small  cliff; 
while  others  still  endeavored  to  press  their  way  up  the  larger 
one  on  which  the  village  stands,  and  where  the  whole  population 
of  Acoma  was  assembled.  Everywhere  it  was  a  hand-to-hand 
struggle;  and  to  fall  on  either  cliff  or  on  the  narrow  ridge  be- 
tween, meant  swift  destruction  on  the  jagged  sides  of  the  rocky 
mesas  or  in  the  abyss  below.  Night  came  but  brought  no  rest; 
and  with  the  dawn  of  another  day,  came  only  a  renewal  of  the 
fierce  conflict. 

The  Indians  outnumbered  the  Spaniards  more  than  ten  to  one, 
but  the  latter  were  clad  in  mail  and  carried  the  deadly  fire-arms 
which  could  deal  death  beyond  the  reach  of  the  macana.  All  that 
day  the  fight  went  on  —  and  still  the  struggle  was  not  decided. 
It  was  a  battle  full  of  deeds  of  valor  and  of  daring,  of  giant  trials 
of  strength,  like  those  immortalized  in  the  Iliad;  and  it  had  for 
its  Homer  the  galant  Villagra,  who  was  in  the  midst  of  the  fray. 

The  third  day  came,  and  the  Spaniards  pressed  the  Indians 
back  into  their  long  line  of  terraced  houses,  and  then  these  became 
a  mass  of  flame  and  the  inmates  had  to  choose  between  two  fright- 
ful kinds  of  death.  In  desperation  they  killed  themselves  or  each 
other,  or  rushed  out  and  threw  themselves  down  the  cliflfs  to  sure 
destruction.  For  hours  every  Indian  that  could  be  seen  was 
slaughtered.  In  all  history  there  is  no  more  desperate  battle, 
nor  ever  one  on  such  a  dizzy  height.  Of  over  3,000  Indians 
only  six  hundred  were  spared,  and  they  were  compelled  to  leave 
their  home  on  the  great  rock,  and  settle  on  the  plain. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  great  victory  was  immense.  It  com- 
pleted the  conquest.  There  was  no  longer  any  danger  of  opposi- 
tion. By  the  Pueblo  Indians,  Acoma  had  long  been  considered 
impregnable.  Now  that  it  had  fallen,  there  was  no  hope  for  suc- 
cess in  any  resistance  elsewhere.  Every  pueblo  acknowledged  the 
Spanish  authority.    The  conquest  of  New  Mexico  was  complete. 


CHAPTEE  X 

Spanish  Occupation,  1598-1680 

The  conquest  being  accomplished,  permanent  settlement  and 
colonization  began,  and,  after  the  first  year  or  two  of  comparative 
hardships,  the  Spaniards  gradually  spread  into  various  sections 
of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 

Fortunately  for  the  colonists,  the  Indians  of  the  Tehua  pueblos 
received  them  kindly,  and  gave  material  assistance  in  the  building 
of  the  new  Spanish  town,  without  which  many  of  the  families 
would  have  suffered  severely  during  the  first  winter,  while  they 
were  still  poorly  protected,  and  before  they  could  raise  any  crops 
for  their  subsistence.  The  Franciscans  founded  their  first  perma- 
nent monastery  (convento),  at  the  pueblo  of  San  Ildef onso,' near 
to  Oilate  's  new  city ;  and  from  that  as  a  central  point  missionaries 
traversed  the  country  in  all  directions,  and  as  rapidly  as  arrange- 
ments could  be  made,  priests  were  permanently  stationed  and 
churches  erected  in  all  the  principal  villages. 

As  a  result  of  these  efforts,  the  reports  show  that  as  early  as 
1608  no  less  than  8,000  Indians  had  been  baptized ;  and  by  1626, 
that  number  had  increased  to  nearly  35,000.  One  single  monk, 
of  intense  zeal  and  wonderful  power  among  the  natives  —  Gero- 
nimo  de  Zarate  Salmeron,  of  Jemez  —  himself  baptized  the  ex- 
traordinary number  of  6,566  Indians  at  that  pueblo,  besides  doing 
effective  work  in  other  directions.  Others  of  the  colonists,  more 
bent  on  temporal  things,  explored  the  country  from  end  to  end 
for  the  precious  metals  —  and  with  some  success,  for  mines  were 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  vast  domain.  The  remains  of  an- 
cient workings,  as  well  as  the  written  history  of  those  times,  shows 
how  enterprising  were  the  ''prospectors"  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury: their  labors  extending  from  the  Mexican  boundary  in  the 


SPANISH  OCCUPATION,  1598-1680  101 

south  to  Picuris  and  even  to  the  Rio  Colorado  in  the  north,  and 
leaving  no  mountain  range  unexplored. 

Oiiate,  himself,  showed  great  energy  and  executive  ability  both 
in  the  government  of  the  colony  and  in  his  dealings  with  the 
natives. 

We  have  already  seen  the  untiring  energy  with  which,  in  less 
than  five  months  after  his  arrival,  he  made  a  tour  of  all  the 
Pueblo  provinces,  in  which  he  visited  nearly  every  town  of  im- 
portance, with  a  view  of  establishing  amicable  relations  with  the 
people.  All  of  1599  and  1600  were  occupied  in  exploration,  in 
extending  the  settlements  and  strengthening  the  positions  al- 
ready occupied. 

It  was  evident  that,  in  order  to  hold  possession  of  so  large  a 
province,  more  soldiers  and  more  colonists  were  necessary ;  and  to 
Christianize  the  people,  more  friars  must  aid  in  the  work.  Onate 
wrote  to  the  viceroy  in  glowing  terms  of  the  prospects  of  new  dis- 
coveries, and  sent  his  letter  by  Captains  Villagra,  Farfan,  and 
Pinero,  whose  spoken  words  were  even  more  enthusiastic  than 
the  written  ones  of  the  governor.  At  the  same  time  Padres  Mar- 
tinez, Salazar,  and  Vergara  went  to  Mexico  to  obtain  spiritual 
reenforcements.  The  result  was  that  the  seventy-one  soldiers 
that  were  lacking  in  Onate 's  little  army  when  it  left  New  Biscay 
were  supplied,  and  while  Padre  Salazar  died  on  the  journey  and 
Padre  Martinez  did  not  return,  about  eight  additional  friars  were 
sent  under  Padre  Juan  de  Escalona. 

The  governor  now  determined  to  attempt  a  more  ambitious 
journey,  and  set  out  in  June,  1601,  on  an  expedition  to  the  great 
city  of  the  east  —  the  famous  Quivira.  He  took  with  him  80 
soldiers,  and  was  accompanied  by  two  friars  for  religious  duties, 
and  by  Jose,  the  survivor  of  Humana 's  expedition,  who  had  been 
found  at  Picuris,  as  guide.  After  the  long  march  across  the 
plains,  he  reached  the  object  of  the  expedition  and  succeeded  in 
making  a  treaty  of  perpetual  friendship  between  the  Quivirans 
and  the  Spaniards. 

But  while  he  was  absent,  many  of  the  colonists  became  dis- 
couraged on  account  of  the  failure  of  the  crops,  and  even  the 


102  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

priests  lost  heart,  and  a  number  deserted  the  infant  settlement 
and  returned  to  Mexico.  When  Onate  arrived  he  was  greatly 
vexed  at  this  conduct,  and  sent  his  nephew,  Vicente  de  Saldivar, 
in  hot  haste  to  Mexico,  to  turn  back  the  fugitives,  and  to  repre- 
sent him  before  the  viceroy.  Don  Vicente  overtook  the  colonists 
and  forced  them  to  return,  and  then  proceeded  not  only  to  Mexico 
but  to  Spain  itself,  to  protect  the  interests  of  his  uncle. 

The  latter  had  lost  none  of  his  love  of  adventure,  and  not  satis- 
fied with  his  expedition  to  the  far  east,  determined  to  explore  the 
unknown  region  to  the  west,  if  possible  as  far  as  the  ocean  itself. 
He  set  ouf  on  October  7,  1604,  with  30  soldiers  and  two  priests^ 
and  first  visited  Zuni  and  then  the  pueblos  of  the  Moqui  pro- 
vince, and  finally  reached  a  small  stream  which  he  called  San 
Andres,  and  followed  this  down  to  the  Colorado  river  itself,  which 
he  called  "Rio  de  Buena  Esperanza"  (Good  Hope).  Ofiate  was 
the  first  European  to  follow  that  great  stream  to  its  mouth,  and 
in  the  course  of  the  journey  he  found  many  different  tribes  of 
Indians.  He  crossed  the  Gila  where  it  unites  with  the  Colorado 
and  proceeded  down  the  valley  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  where 
he  was  delighted  with  the  fine  harbor  surrounding  ah  island,  and 
capable,  he  writes,  of  containing  a  thousand  vessels.  This  expe- 
dition was  of  the  greatest  importance  in  determining  the  distance 
of  the  settlements  on  the  Rio  Grande  from  the  western  shore  of 
the  continent,  but  it  was  absolutely  barren  of  practical  results. 
It  returned  by  the  same  general  route  that  it  had  followed  west- 
ward to  San  Gabriel,  where  the  soldiers  arrived  after  many  pri- 
vations and  being  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  eating  their  horses^ 
on  April  25, 1605. 

In  1605  occurred  the  removal  of  the  capital  from  San  Gabriel 
to  Santa  Fe.  It  seems  strange  that  we  have  no  record  of  so  im- 
portant an  event  as  the ^  establishment  of  the  Royal  City  (Villa 
Real)  in  its  sheltered  spot  in  the  foothills  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains;  but  the  great  conflagration  in  the  centre  of 
the  Plaza,  in  1680,  which  signalized  the  Pueblo  triumph,  de- 
stroyed many  a  memorial  of  the  past,  as  well  as  the  symbols  of 
Christianity  and  Spanish  authority. 


w 


104  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Whatever  was  the  cause  of  the  change  or  the  method  of  selec- 
tion, time  has  certainly  demonstrated  the  wisdom  of  the  choice; 
as  all  the  experience  of  three  hundred  years  has  shown  no  locality 
so  charming  and  salubrious  in  its  climate,  and  so  free  from  the 
wind  and  storm  of  winter  and  the  heat  and  insect  pests  of  sum- 
mer, in  all  the  wide  southwest. 

The  exact  day  we  do  not  know,  but  the  year  1605  is  certain. 
Fray  Alonzo  de  Posadas  so  states  in  his  report  to  the  king,  in 
which  he  says  that  Onate  carried  with  him  to  the  new  capital,  a 
number  of  soldiers  and  several  Franciscan  friars,  of  whom  the 
chief  was  Padre  Francisco  de  Escobar. 

The  seat  of  government  certainly  remained  at  San  Gabriel  until 
that  year.  An  interesting  document  which  gives  authority  to 
Vicente  de  Zaldivar  and  Gaspar  de  Villagra  to  represent  the 
people  before  the  king  of  Spain  is  dated  at  San  Gabriel,  October 
4,  1603,  and  is  executed  by  the  Cabildo,  Justicia,  Regidores  de  La 
Villa  de  San  Gabriel  de  Nuevo  Mexico,  showing  that  the  local 
authorities  were  all  present;  and  on  April  25,  1605,  according  to 
Salmeron,  Onate  returned  from  his  expedition  to  the  Colorado 
of  the  West,  to  the  old  capital  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

For  three-quarters  of  a  century  after  this  removal  of  the  capi- 
tal, the  records  that  we  have  of  the  history  of  New  Mexico  are 
quite  meagre,  for  the  reason  above  stated.  The  growth  of  the 
colony  was  slow,  as  very  few  cared  to  leave  the  irich  tropical 
climate  of  Mexico  to  endure  the  privations  of  frontier  life  in  the 
northern  province,  now  that  the  romance  of  exploration  and  dis- 
covery and  the  hope  of  great  mineral  riches  was  dissipated. 

In  1606,  we  are  told  that  a  party  of  800  Indians  from  Quivira 
came  to  Santa  Fe  to  return  the  visit  made  by  the  Spaniards  five 
years  before,  and  to  ask  aid  in  a  war  which  they  were  then 
waging ;  and  brought  with  them  to  Onate  an  Axtao  prisoner,  who 
was  subsequently  taken  to  Spain  and  presented  to  the  king,  at- 
tracting great  attention  wherever  he  journeyed. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  Onate  ceased  to  be  governor  in 
1608  and  was  then  succeeded  by  Don  Pedro  de  Peralta.  The 
former  had  encountered  a  series  of  difficulties  and  disat)point- 


SPANISH  OCCUPATION,  1598-1680  105 

ments.  The  viceroy  of  New  Spain  was  not  always  friendly,  and 
there  was  frequent  friction  with  the  friars.  The  expense  of  the 
expedition  and  colonization  had  been  enormous  and  had  depleted 
his  fortune.  The  contract  with  the  Crown,  under  which  the  expe- 
dition had  been  undertaken,  provided  for  the  succession  of  his  son 
to  his  office  and  honors ;  but  nothing  of  that  kind  took  place,  and 
apparently  the  contract  Avas  entirely  abrogated  and  New  Mexico 
placed  on  a  level  with  other  royal  provinces,  as  two  chroniclers  of 
the  day,  Calle  and  Betancur,  tell  us  that  the  new  governor  re- 
ceived a  salary,  and  that  in  that  year  the  king  began  to  support 
both  soldiers  and  priests. 

There  are  chronicles  of  a  second  expedition  to  the  eastern 
plains  by  Oiiate  in  1611,  and  of  another  by  Vicente  de  Saldivar 
to  the  Grand  Caiion  in  1618,  but  these  are  of  doubtful  authority 
and  may  only  be  versions  of  the  previous  explorations. 

In  1617  the  Cabildo  of  Santa  Fe  petitioned  the  king  for  aid 
for  the  new  settlement. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  inscriptions  on  the  celebrated  Moro 
Inscription  Kock,  east  of  Zuni,  relates  to  this  period,  and  as  pic- 
tured in  Simpson's  report,  from  drawings  made  on  September 
17,  1849,  reads  as  follows,  many  words  being  abbreviated : 

' '  Governor  and  Captain-General  of  the  Province  of  New  Mexico, 
for  our  Lord,  the  King,  passed  by  this  place,  on  his  return  from 
the  pueblos  of  Zuiii,  on  the  29th  of  July  of  the  year  1620,  etc." 

In  1621,  the  Franciscan  Missions,  which  claimed  16,000  con- 
verts among  the  Indians,  were  organized  as  the  ' '  Custodia  of  the 
Conversion  of  St.  Paul, ' '  and  Padre  Alonzo  Benevides  came  as  the 
first  custodio,  bringing  with  him  twenty-seven  friars,  lie  was  an 
indefatigable  worker,  and  made  a  lengthy  report  as  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  and  provinces  of  New  Mexico  in  1626,  which  is 
altogether  the  best  source  of  information  as  to  that  period.  He 
describes  each  "nacion"  separately;  and  gives  particular  ac- 
counts of  the  mines  of  Socorro,  the  Villa  de  Santa  Fe,  the  fishing, 
hunting,  agriculture,  and  climate  of  the  country;  and  all  this 
was  immediately  transmitted  by  the  commissary-general  of  the 
Franciscans  in  Mexico  to  King  Philip  IV,  and  printed  in  Madrid 


106  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

in  1630.  He  tells  us  that  at  that  time  there  were  250  Spaniards 
in  Santa  Fe,  though  only  50  could  do  military  service  on  account 
of  lack  of  arms ;  and  there  were  also  700  Indians  and  half-breeds 
living  there ;  and  he  says  that  the  friars  taught  both  Spaniards 
and  Indians  ' '  to  read  and  write,  to  play  on  musical  instruments 
and  sing,  and  all  arts  of  politeness."  He  adds,  "This  place, 
though  cold,  is  the  most  fertile  of  all  New  Mexico. ' ' 

Two  governors  are  mentioned  during  this  period  —  Felipe  Zo- 
tylo  and  Manuel  de  Silva  —  of  whom  we  know  little  more  than 
the  names,  except  that  Governor  Silva  went  to  Zuni  in  August, 
1729,  and  left  an  inscription  there  which  is  his  best  monument. 
After  them  came  Luis  de  Rosas  in  1641,  a  governor  Yaldez,  Alon- 
zo  Pacheco  de  Heredia,  Fernando  de  Arguello  in  1645,  and  Luis 
de  Guzman ;  which  brings  us  down  to  1650. 

During  much  of  this  period  there  was  increasing  friction  be- 
tween the  civil  and  the  religious  authorities ;  the  friars  claiming 
almost  absolute  power  in  matters  connected  with  the  Indians,  and 
the  governors  vigorously  resenting  this  interference  with  their 
authority.  Each  side  complained  of  the  other  to  the  higher 
powers  in  Mexico  and  Spain,  and  long  controversies  resulted. 
Governor  de  Rosas  was  stabbed  to  death  in  1641  or  1642,  and  this 
was  said  to  be  in  connection  with  the  difficulties  just  referred  to. 
About  this  time  the  Inquisition  was  introduced,  and  this  added  to 
the  friction  between  the  ecclesiastics  and  the  governor.  Mean- 
while the  Indians  were  becoming  more  and  more  restless  under 
the  heavier  burdens  of  the  Spanish  rule. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  the  colonization,  the  best  of  feel- 
ing existed  between  the  native  Pueblos  and  the  newcomers ;  but, 
as  time  went  on,  the  Spaniards  began  to  exact  as  duties  those  ser- 
vices which  had  at  first  been  rendered  from  kindness.  Little  by 
little  they  assumed  greater  powers,  introduced  European  laws, 
and  punished  the  natives  for  the  least  infraction  of  a  foreign  code 
of  which  they  had  never  heard.  The  favorite  penalty  v/as  slavery, 
as  that  provided  the  labor  of  which  the  colonists  stood  in  need, 
especially  in  the  mines,  where  the  servitude  was  of  the  most  harsh 
character.    At  the  same  time,  the  early  Franciscans,  who  came  as 


SPANISH  OCCUPATION,  1598-1680  107 

true  missionaries,  actuated  by  love,  and  easily  won  the  hearts  of 
the  people,  were  succeeded  by  ecclesiastics  of  a  more  severe  type, 
who  sought  to  convert  the  natives  by  compulsion,  and  introduced 
the  Inquisition  and  various  forms  of  punishment,  in  order  to 
compel  the  universal  observance  of  their  religion. 

Under  all  the  circumstances,  the  Pueblos,  who  had  lived  for 
generations  an  easy  life  of  freedom  and  happiness,  until  the  com- 
ing of  the  pale-faced  strangers,  naturally  changed  in  their  feel- 
ings from  welcome  and  hospitality  to  hatred  and  a  determination 
to  expel  the  invaders  whenever  opportunity  should  be  presented. 
The  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  filled  with  a  success- 
sion  of  revolts  and  conflicts  arising  from  this  state  of  affairs. 
Many  of  these  were  local  and  easily  ended,  but  others  were  well- 
arranged  and  formidable.  As  one  after  the  other  attempt  failed, 
either  from  lack  of  cooperation  or  because  the  project  was  di- 
vulged prematurely,  the  Indians  learned  that  only  by  united  and 
secret  action  was  success  to  be  achieved ;  and  preparations  for  such 
an  uprising  were  cautiously  discussed,  year  after  year,  at  the 
great  Pueblo  festivals. 

About  1645,  forty  Indians  were  hung  on  religious  grounds  and 
many  others  were  flogged  and  imprisoned,  and  this  brought  about 
a  revolt,  which  however  was  short-lived. 

Fernando  de  Ugarte  y  la  Concha  became  governor  in  1650,  and 
shortly  afterwards  a  plot  was  fortunately  discovered  by  which 
the  Pueblos  and  Apaches  were  to  kill  all  of  the  soldiers,  on  the 
night  of  Holy  Thursday,  when  all  would  be  in  church. 

Shortly  after  this  occurrence,  there  were  conspiracies  and  ris- 
ings among  the  Piros.  In  all  of  these  cases  the  punishments  were 
very  severe. 

In  1653,  Juan  de  Samaniego  was  appointed  governor,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Enrique  de  Avila  y  Pacheco  in  1656,  and  he  by  Ber- 
nardo Lopez  de  Mendizabal.  The  last  named  became  involvel  in 
warm  disputes  with  the  offlcials  of  the  Inquisition,  and  finally  re- 
signed in  1660.    He  was  succeeded  by  Diego  de  Penalosa. 

Whatever  may  have  been  his  failings,  Peiialosa  was  altogether 
the  most  picturesque  character  among  all  the  New  Mexican  gov- 


108  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ernors  in  the  century  between  Oi5ate  and  De  Vargas.  The  earliest 
document  in  the  Archives  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  only  one  dated 
before  the  Pueblo  Revolution,  is  signed  by  him.  How  it  survived 
the  conflagration  of  1680  no  one  knows ;  but,  brief  as  it  is,  it  re- 
flects credit  on  his  administration.  It  orders  that  the  Pueblo 
Indians  be  not  obliged  to  work  in  spinning  or  weaving  without 
the  governor 's  license ;  that  friendly  Indians  be  well  treated,  but 
that  wild  tribes  be  not  admitted  to  the  town  but  compelled  to 
lodge  outside. 

Pefialosa  was  a  man  of  fine  appearance  and  engaging  manners, 
which  made  him  many  friends ;  very  ambitious  and  of  great  as- 
surance; and  he  had  acquired  large  wealth  which  was  left  in 
Mexico  when  he  came  as  governor  to  Santa  Fe.  With  much 
energy  he  took  up  the  duties  of  the  office,  visited  various  parts  of 
the  territory,  and  went  as  far  west  as  Zuni  and  Moqui,  and 
planned  many  expeditions  abroad  as  well  as  new  settlements  and 
improvements  at  home.  But  the  troubles  and  collisions  with  the 
officials  of  the  Inquisition,  which  had  driven  his  predecessor  out 
of  office,  were  soon  revived  with  increased  virulence,  and  for  some 
special  cause  of  offense,  we  are  told  that  he  finally  arrested  the 
commissary-general  and  imprisoned  him  for  a  week  in  the  Palace. 
This  was  not  forgotten  nor  forgiven ;  and  when,  soon  afterwards, 
he  went  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  to  consult  with  the  viceroy,  the 
high  officials  of  the  Inquisition  there  had  him  thrown  into  prison 
and  subjected  him  to  a  ruinous  fine,  and  he  was  only  set  at  liberty 
on  making  a  public  apology  and  a  humiliating  act  of  contrition. 

He  again  endeavored  to  interest  the  viceroy  and  even  the  king 
in  a  grand  scheme  of  conquest,  but  being  unsuccessful,  he  went  to 
Paris  and  applied  to  the  French  government  to  take  up  the  pro- 
ject, and  there  presented  the  narratjve  of  a  most  remarkable  ex- 
pedition purporting  to  have  been  made  by  himself,  in  1662,  from 
Santa  Fe  to  Quivira ;  the  whole  apparently  reported  by  a  chaplain 
of  his  little  army  to  the  king  of  Spain.  This  was  considered  genu- 
ine and  of  much  historic  value,  until  recent  investigation  showed 
that  it  was  entirely  imaginative  except  as  founded  on  the  report 
of  Oiiate's  expedition  of  1601. 


SPANISH  OCCUPATION,  1598-1680  109 

After  Penalosa,  in  1664,  came  Fernando  de  Villanueva  as  gov- 
ernor, and  he  was  succeeded  by  Juan  de  Medrano,  Juan  de  Mi- 
randa, and  Juan  Francisco  Treviiio.  This  brings  us  down  to  1679, 
when  Antonio  Otermin  was  appointed. 

Meanwhile  the  wild  tribes  of  Indians  of  the  plains,  the  Apaches 
of  various  names,  began  to  make  incursions  and  to  fall  upon  the 
defenseless  settlers  and  entire  villages.  The  bad  feeling  between 
the  Spaniards  and  the  Pueblos  became  intensified  by  various 
grievances  of  which  both  parties  complained,  but  especially  by 
the  severity  accorded  to  the  Indians.  What  they  most  needed 
was  a  leader  of  acknowledged  ability,  and  in  the  excitement  which 
followed  the  severe  punishment  of  47  Indians  for  alleged  witch- 
craft, in  1675,  a  man  came  into  general  notice  who  seemed  by  his 
fearless  intrepidity  as  well  as  by  his  good  judgment  well  fitted  for 
the  task.  His  name  was  Pope,  of  the  pueblo  of  San  Juan ;  and  we 
shall  hear  much  of  him  hereafter. 


CHAPTER  XI 

The  Pueblo  Revolution 

At  the  end  of  Chapter  X  mention  is  made  of  Pope,  who  first 
came  into  general  notice  by  his  action  in  1675.  Prom  that  time 
he  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  leader,  and  was  untiring  in 
his  endeavors  to  unite  the  whole  Pueblo  population  in  a  general 
uprising  against  the  Spaniards. 

With  this  view  he  traveled  from  town  to  town,  urging  a  forget- 
fulness  of  old  jealousies,  and  using  his  wonderful  eloquence  to 
great  effect.  He  was  ably  seconded  in  this  by  several  other  na- 
tives of  large  influence,  prominent  among  whom  were  Catiti,  of 
Santo  Domingo,  Jaca  of  Taos,  and  Tacu  of  San  Juan.  By  their 
efforts  the  whole  Indian  population  was  brought  into  a  condition 
of  preparation  and  only  waited  for  an  opportune  moment  to 
strike  a  decisive  blow.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  occasion  of 
the  final  rising,  but  the  tradition  is  so  general  that  we  can  hardly 
think  it  without  foundation,  that  the  caving  in  of  the  shaft  of  a 
silver  mine,  and  the  consequent  burying  alive  of  a  large  number 
of  Pueblo  Indians  who  had  been  forced  to  labor  there,  was  the 
'Hast  straw"  which  exhausted  the  long-tried  patience  of  the  na- 
tives, and  precipitated  the  revolt. 

The  day  finally  fixed  on  by  the  leaders  for  the  uprising  was 
August  10,  1680,  and  swift  messengers  were  sent  to  every  Pueblo 
town  to  carry  the  information  and  call  for  its  cooperation. 
"Warned  by  previous  failures,  every  means  was  used  to  secure 
secrecy.  Not  a  woman  was  entrusted  with  the  secret,  and  so 
intense  was  the  feeling  that  Pope  killed  with  his  own  hand  his 
son-in-law  Nicolas  Bua,  the  governor  of  San  Juan,  because  he 
was  believed  to  be  disloyal.  But  even  all  these  precautions  did 
not  suffice,  for  on  the  eighth  of  August  two  Indians  of  Tesuque, 


THE  PUEBLO  EEYOLUTION  111 

which  was  so  near  to  Santa  Fe  that  the  Indians  were  specially 
intimate  with  the  Spanish  authorities,  revealed  the  whole  plot  to 
Governor  Otermin,  and  other  Indians  at  San  Lazaro  and  San 
Cristobal  gave  information  to  Father  Bernal,  the  Franciscan  ciis- 
todio. 

The  fact  that  they  were  betrayed  was  almost  immediately 
known  by  the  Pueblo  leaders,  who  saw  that  their  only  chance  of 
success  now  lay  in  immediate  action.  Orders  were  consequently 
issued  to  that  effect,  and  were  so  swiftly  carried,  that  that  very 
night  in  all  the  pueblos,  except  those  far  distant,  every  Spaniard 
was  slaughtered  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  except  a  few  girls 
reserved  for  wives  for  the  young  braves.  The  news  of  this  gen- 
eral massacre  naturally  created  the  utmost  consternation  at  the 
capital  and  in  all  the  Spanish  towns.  Otermin  sent  messengers 
through  the  territory  directing  the  people  at  the  north  to  concen- 
trate at  Santa  Fe,  and  those  of  the  south  at  Isleta,  and  imme- 
diately set  about  fortifying  the  capital. 

Many  of  the  Spaniards  reached  these  cities  of  refuge,  but  a  still 
larger  number,  found  in  their  houses  or  on  the  roads,  were  slain. 
Those  living  in  the  extreme  north,  finding  it  impossible  to  reach 
Santa  Fe,  assembled  at  Santa  Cruz,  and  endeavored  to  fortify 
the  town;  but  on  the  eleventh  the  Indians  carried  it  by  storm 
and  massacred  all  who  were  found  there. 

By  this  time  the  people  of  every  pueblo  were  on  the  war-path 
and  news  came  to  the  governor  from  all  quarters  of  approaching 
armies.  The  men  from  the  Tanos  pueblos  were  marching  from 
the  south,  while  the  Tehuas  had  united  near  the  Rio  Tesuque 
and  were  hourly  expected  from  the  north.  The  city  of  Santa  Fe 
was  transformed  into  one  great  fortification.  The  outlying  houses 
w^ere  abandoned,  and  all  the  inhabitants  gathered  in  the  plaza, 
the  entrances  to  which  were  closed  and  fortified,  and  the  palace 
put  into  condition  to  stand  a  siege.  All  recognized  that  it  was  a 
life  and  death  struggle,  for  the  Avar  was  one  of  extermination. 

Before  the  preparations  were  completed,  the  Tanos  Indians 
were  seen  marching  over  the  plains  from  the  south.  The  governor 
sent  out  envoys  to  endeavor  to  treat  with  them  before  their  north- 


112  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ern  allies  appeared,  but  without  success.  They  would  only  make 
peace  on  condition  that  the  Spaniards  should  immediately  leave 
the  country.  This  attempt  having  failed,  Otermin  determined  to 
make  an  attack  and  endeavor  to  gain  a  victorj^  before  the  Tehuas 
should  arrive;  and  an  immediate  sortie  was  therefore  made.  A 
desperate  battle  ensued,  the  Indians  fighting  with  great  energy, 
and  the  Spaniards  having  gradually  to  bring  out  their  whole  force 
to  take  part  in  the  contest.  The  destruction  of  the  natives  was 
terrific,  but  by  their  superior  numbers  they  were  able  to  hold 
their  ground,  the  fight  continuing  all  through  the  day,  until  the 
appearance  of  the  Tehuan  army  on  the  hills  to  the  north  of  the 
city  compelled  Otermin  to  withdraw  his  forces  within  the  walls 
and  prepare  for  the  combined  attack  to  be  expected  on  the 
morrow. 

No  such  assault  however  took  place;  the  Indians  had  learned 
discretion  from  their  recent  experience  and  preferred  the  surer 
and  safer  method  of  a  regular  siege.  They  invested  the  city 
closely  on  all  sides,  and  then  cut  off  the  water  supply,  which  soon 
produced  great  distress.  The  number  of  fighting  men  among  the 
Spaniards  was  not  great,  and  was  being  gradually  reduced  by 
wounds  and  fatigue,  while  the  Pueblos  were  constantly  reenforced 
by  fresh  arrivals.  As  there  was  no  hope  of  relief  from  without, 
and  a  continuance  of  the  siege  meant  sure  destruction,  the  Span- 
iards finally  determined  to  make  a  sortie  in  force ;  and  this  was 
gallantly  executed  on  August  19th,  the  Indians  being  forced  back 
with  the  loss  of  forty-seven  prisoners.  But  even  such  successes 
were  too  dearly  bought,  and  though  the  Spaniards  executed  all 
the  prisoners  in  the  Plaza,  yet  a  council  of  war  concluded  that  in 
view  of  their  reduced  condition  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions  it 
would  be  better  to  evacuate  the  town  while  the  coast  was  clear. 
Preparations  were  accordingly  made  during  the  night  of  the  20th, 
and  at  early  dawn  the  next  morning,  the  whole  population  mourn- 
fully left  the  town,  and  started  on  their  long  and  toilsome  march 
to  the  south.  There  were  not  even  horses  enough  to  carry  the 
sick  and  wounded,  so  that  all  the  women  and  children  as  well  as 
the  men  had  to  proceed  on  foot,  carrying  all  their  personal  prop- 


THE  PUEBLO  EE VOLUTION  113 

erty,  as  well  as  provisions,  in  bundles  on  their  backs.  Meanwhile, 
the  Indians  stolidity  viewed  them  from  the  surrounding  hills,  mak- 
ing no  attack,  but  apparently  well  content  so  long  as  the  intruders 
were  leaving  the  country.  They  followed  the  retreating  band  for 
about  70  miles  in  order  to  see  that  they  were  actually  proceeding 
south,  and  then  returned  to  their  homes  to  enjoy  the  independence 
in  both  civil  and  religious  matters  of  which  they  had  been  de- 
prived for  nearly  a  century. 

The  Spaniards  continued  their  march  down  the  river,  hoping  to 
find  their  countrymen  from  the  southern  part  of  the  province  at 
Isleta ;  but  were  disappointed  in  this,  as  they  had  already  left  in 
charge  of  the  lieutenant-governor  for  El  Paso,  The  provisions 
were  almost  exhausted  and  none  were  to  be  found  on  the  route,  so 
that  at  length  they  were  compelled  to  stop  and  send  south  for 
assistance.  The  call  was  responded  to  by  Father  Ayeta,  of  El 
Paso,  who  sent  four  wagon-loads  of  corn,  and  thus  partially  re- 
lieved, the  fugitives  continued  their  retreat,  joining  their  south- 
ern brethren  on  the  road,  and  finally  selecting  San  Lorenzo,  twelve 
leagues  above  El  Paso,  as  their  winter  quarters.  Here  they  built 
rude  houses,  but  suffered  many  privations,  both  from  cold  and 
hunger,  and  lost  a  large  fraction  of  their  number  who  sought  a 
less  unhappy  life  in  the  villages  of  Chihuahua. 

The  Spaniards  who  were  left  behind  in  various  parts  of  New 
Mexico,  were  with  scarcely  an  exception  killed  after  their  coun- 
trymen had  abandoned  tlie  countrj^  Especially  did  the  priests, 
against  whom  and  the  Christian  religion  the  Pueblos  were  greatly 
incensed,  suffered  horrible  deaths  —  those  at  Zuiii,  Moqui,  Jemez, 
and  Acoma  being  among  those  thus  left  to  a  dreadful  fate. 

The  Franciscan  order  never  had  suffered  such  a  loss  from  the 
martyrdom  of  its  members  as  at  this  time.  No  less  than  twenty- 
one  gave  up  their  lives  on  that  fatal  tenth  of  August,  1680.  On 
the  first  of  March  of  the  succeeding  year  a  great  memorial  service 
was  held  in  the  cathedral  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  presence 
of  the  viceroy  and  other  high  officials,  when  a  commemorative 
sermon  was  preached  by  Doctor  Ysidro  Sarinana  y  Cuenca,  in 
which  each  of  the  twenty-one  martyrs  is  named,  together  with 


114  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  place  of  his  death.  A  copy  of  this  sermon,  printed  in  1681, 
is  in  the  possession  of  the  Historical  Society  at  Santa  Fe,  which 
has  published  a  translation. 

Thus  in  the  brief  space  of  a  few  weeks  the  work  of  years  was 
undone,  not  a  Spaniard  remaining  in  freedom  in  the  province, 
and  the  old  Pueblo  authority  was  everywhere  supreme.  The  new 
rulers  were  determined  to  obliterate  every  trace  of  the  domina- 
tion of  their  enemies.  At  Santa  Fe  the  churches  and  monastery 
of  the  Franciscans  were  burned  amid  the  wildest  acclamations. 
The  gorgeous  vestments  of  the  priests  were  worn  in  derision  by 
the  natives  and  then  destroyed.  All  the  official  documents  and 
books  were  brought  forth  from  the  palace  and  burned  in  one  vast 
bon-fire  in  the  Plaza ;  and  there  also  they  danced  the  ''ca china" — 
for  many  years  prohibited  —  with  all  the  superstitious  ceremonies 
of  the  old  religion.  In  every  way  possible  their  detestation  of 
Christianity  was  shown.  Those  who  had  been  baptized  were 
w^ashed  with  amole  in  the  Santa  Fe  river,  in  order  to  be  cleansed 
from  the  infection  of  Christianity.  Baptismal  names  were  dis- 
carded, Christian  marriages  annulled,  the  mention  of  the  name 
of  Jesus  and  ]\Iary  prohibited,  and  estufas  were  everywhere  sub- 
stituted for  the  destroyed  churches.  In  addition  to  this,  the  use 
of  the  Spanish  language  was  m.ade  an  offense;  and  in  order  to 
prevent  any  possibility  of  the  re-establishment  of  the  slavery  in 
the  mines,  every  shaft  was  tilled  up  and.  their  very  locations  ob- 
literated. 

Pope,  who  had  been  the  leader  throughout  the  revolution,  was 
now  by  common  consent  continued  in  authority;  he  established 
himself  in  the  palace  at  Santa  Fe.  In  anticipation  of  a  Spanish 
invasion  in  the  spring,  he  made  a  tour  of  all  the  Pueblo  cities  in 
order  to  cement  the  union  among  them  and  prepare  for  the  ap- 
proaching struggle.  He  showed  much  wisdom  in  his  public  ad- 
ministration but  gradually  became  more  and  more  arrogant  and 
dictatorial  until  he  created  many  enemies. 

Meantime  Governor  Otermin  Avas  using  every  endeavor  to  or- 
ganize an  expedition  to  re-conquer  the  country.  Lack  of  ammuni- 
tion and  provisions,  and  the  long  delays  in  obtaining  the  neees- 


THE  PUEBLO  EE VOLUTION  115 

sary  authorization,  caused  almost  a  year  to  pass  before  he  was 
ready  to  march ;  but  at  length  on  November  5,  1681,  he  set  out 
from  Paso  del  Norte  with  146  mounted  soldiers,  together  with  all 
the  able-bodied  refugees  and  112  friendly  Indians,  the  entire 
party  having  nearly  a  thousand  horses.  He  marched  rapidly  up 
the  river,  passing  through  Socorro  and  other  villages,  all  of  which 
were  found  burned  and  in  ruins,  and  stox)ped  at  Isleta,  where  the 
remaining  inhabitants,  1,157  in  number,  after  brief  resistance, 
returned  to  their  allegiance  to  church  and  king.  From  here,  on 
December  8>  he  sent  a  company  of  picked  cavalry  under  General 
Mendoza  to  reconnoitre  the  country  to  the  north ;  and  he,  rapidly 
proceeding  up  the  valley,  found  only  deserted  pueblos,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  fled  at  his  approach. 

He  arrived  as  far  as  Cochiti  without  meeting  an  enemy,  but 
there  found  the  Indians  in  force,  on  the  surrounding  hills,  under 
command  of  Catiti.  Several  days  were  occupied  in  negotiations 
for  peace,  the  Indians  meanwhile  constantly  increasing  in  num- 
ber, until  Mendoza,  suspecting  treachery,  deemed  it  wise  to  return 
to  the  main  army,  which  he  met  at  Sandia.  Meanwhile  the 
weather  had  become  very  severe,  and  the  provisions  being  nearly 
exhausted  it  was  thought  best  to  return  to  Isleta  for  the  winter; 
but  on  arriving  there,  it  was  found  that  the  men  were  so  greatly 
enfeebled  that  the  retreat  was  continued  to  El  Paso,  where  they 
arrived  about  the  middle  of  February;  the  re-Christianized  In- 
dians of  Isleta,  to  the  number  of  385,  accompanying  them  for 
fear  of  the  vengeance  of  the  other  Pueblos. 

This  failure  on  the  part  of  Otermin  seems  to  have  led  to  his 
removal  as  governor,  Bartolome  de  Estrada  Ramirez  being  ap- 
pointed in  his  place  in  1683.  The  latter  did  not  even  attempt  a 
re-conquest,  and  in  August  of  the  same  year  was  succeeded  bj- 
Domingo  Jironza  Petriz  de  Cruzate,  who  organized  at  least  two 
important  expeditions,  and  many  others  of  less  interest,  and  in 
1689  penetrated  as  far  as  Zia,  but  did  not  succeed  in  any  per- 
manent occupation. 

Thus  for  a  number  of  years  the  country  was  left  in  the  pos- 
session of  its  aboriginal  inhabitants  —  but  after  the  fivst  patriotic 


116  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

fervor  had  cooled,  dissensions  arose  among  them,  and  during  al- 
most the  entire  period,  a  state  of  war  existed  between  more  or  less 
of  the  pueblos.  They  suffered  for  lack  of  com,  caused  by 
droughts  and  by  inattention  to  planting ;  and  the  consequent  fam- 
ine caused  the  desertion  of  a  number  of  towns,  and  the  destruction 
of  others,  supposed  to  be  well-supplied,  by  their  m.ore  hungry 
neighbors.  In  short,  this  people  who  had  ruled  themseh''es  so  ad- 
mirably down  to  the  time  of  the  Spanish  occupation,  seemed  dur- 
ing the  half  century  of  their  subjugation  to  have  forgotten  their 
old  wisdom  and  become  entirely  unfitted  for  self-government; 
and  thus,  instead  of  consolidating  their  power,  they  prepared  the 
way  by  dissension  and  mutual  destruction,  for  an  easy  re-conquest 
by  their  enemies. 

The  Pecos,  Queres,  and  Taos  Indians  waged  war  against  the 
Tehuas  and  Tanos.  At  one  time  Pope  was  superseded  by  Tupatu 
as  chief  executive;  but  Pope  was  reinstated  and  continued  in 
power  till  he  died,  when  Tupatu  Avas  chosen  as  his  successor. 


CHAPTER  XII  1  fc  '. 


>4i& 


The  Re-Conquest 


In  the  spring  o»w^*he  viceroy  of  New  Spain  determined,  if 
possible,  to  bring  about  the  re-occupation  of  New  Mexico,  and 
appointed  as  its  governor  a  man  of  great  energy  and  decision  of 
character,  Diego  de  Vargas  Zapata  Lujan  Ponce  de  Leon,  This 
official  immediately  showed  the  wisdom  of  his  choice  by  the 
promptitude  of  his  action.  Although  greatly  disappointed  at 
the  inadequacy  of  the  force  he  was  enabled  to  muster,  which 
amounted  to  but  two  hundred  Spaniards  and  one  hundred  friend- 
ly Indians,  yet  he  decided  not  to  delay,  but  to  strike  a  blow  at 
once,  while  it  would  be  unexpected  and  therefore  effectual. 

Accordingly,  he  left  Paso  del  Norte  on  August  21,  1692,  and 
marched  so  rapidly  up  the  Rio  Grande  valley,  stopping  only  for 
necessary  rest,  that  in  less  than  twenty-three  days  he  arrived 
before  Santa  Pe,  which  he  approached  early  in  the  morning  of 
September  13th.  He  found  the  town  walled  and  full  of  Indians, 
who  had  especially  fortified  the  massive  palace.  The  first  act  of 
the  Spaniards  was  the  very  important  one  of  cutting  off  the  water 
supply  from  the  river,  and  then  throughout  the  day  negotiations 
were  carried  on,  De  Vargas  using  every  effort  to  conciliate  the 
Indians  and  avoid  a  conflict.  At  first  all  overtures  were  unsuc- 
cessful, and  meanwhile  the  hills  around  were  becoming  covered 
with  armed  men  from  the  adjacent  pueblos,  who  had  come  to  the 
aid  of  their  brethren. 

Finally  peaceful  measures  prevailed,  a  number  of  Indians 
came  out  to  greet  the  general,  and  the  next  morning  he  was  in- 
vited to  enter  the  town.  This  he  did,  with  Father  Corvera  and 
six  unarmed  soldiers,  and  proclaimed  that  he  had  authority  to 
pardon  all  past  offenses  if  the  people  would  now  return  to  their 


118  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

allegiance  to  church  and  king.  The  royal  banner  was  then  un- 
furled and  De  Vargas  formally  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  of 
New  Mexico  in  the  name  of  King  Charles  II. 

The  next  important  event  was  the  submission  of  Luis  Tupatu, 
who  since  the  deaths  of  Pope  and  Catiti  had  been  the  chief  of 
the  Pueblos.  He  came  from  San  Juan  and  accompanied  De  Var- 
gas on  his  marches  to  the  other  pueblos,  having  great  influence  in 
securing  a  favorable  reception  for  the  Spaniards.  The  moral 
effect  of  this  rapid  and  signal  success  was  quickly  seen  in  the 
voluntary  surrender  of  no  less  than  twelve  adjacent  pueblos. 

Only  waiting  long  enough  at  the  capital  to  make  the  necessary 
arrangements  for  the  new  government,  Vargas  started  on  an  expe- 
dition against  Taos,  the  most  hostile  of  the  pueblos,  and  marched 
so  rapidly  that  he  arrived  there  and  surrounded  the  two  great 
buildings  on  the  third  day  from  Santa  Fe.  It  was  then  discovered 
that  the  pueblo  was  entirely  deserted ;  but  the  governor  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  inducing  the  Indians  to  return,  not  only  to  their  homes 
but  to  their  allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown  and  the  Christian 
faith,  no  less  than  ninety-five  being  baptized  at  one  time.  This 
done,  he  returned  to  the  capital,  having  been  absent  but  eight 
days,  and  not  losing  a  single  man. 

Scarcely  taking  time  to  rest,  he  next  started,  on  October  17,  on 
a  very  extensive  expedition,  which  included  Pecos,  Santo  Do- 
mingo, Cochiti,  Zia,  Jemez,  and  Santa  Ana,  at  all  of  which  places 
he  was  received  with  acclamation,  and  re-established  the  Spanish 
authority.  Finding  much  of  the  fall  still  left,  he  concluded  to 
visit  the  more  distant  pueblos  as  well;  and  so,  starting  from 
Santa  Ana  on  October  30,  with  but  eighty-nine  soldiers,  he 
marched  to  Isleta,  Acoma,  Zuiii,  and  even  to  all  the  Moqui  towns 
except  Oraybi,  succeeding  everywhere,  by  tact  rather  than  by 
force,  in  inducing  the  people  to  return  to  their  allegiance  in  ex- 
change for  a  pardon  from  the  king  and  absolution  from  an  ac- 
companying priest. 

From  Zuni,  on  his  return,  he  took  a  short  and  direct  route  to 
Socorro,  and  from  there  went  to  El  Paso,  in  order  to  collect  the 
families  that  had  been  exiled  since  1680,  and  the  other  colonists 


THE  RE-CONQUEST  119 

who  were  to  re-settle  the  county.  He  arrived  on  December  20, 
1692,  but  much  delay  occurred  in  the  business,  so  that  it  was  not 
till  October  13  of  the  next  year  that  the  unwieldy  company,  con- 
sisting of  fifteen  hundred,  persons  largely  composed  of  women  and 
children,  with  three  thousand  horses  and  mules  and  all  the  bag- 
gage of  colonists,  commenced  its  march.  No  less  than  seventeen 
Franciscans  accompanied  this  expedition. 

Vargas  had  hoped  to  find  the  Indians  as  favorably  disposed 
as  when  he  left  them,  but  meanwhile  reports  had  been  circulated 
that  he  was  going  to  return  to  execute  vengeance  upon  them,  and 
at  a  great  council  a  majority  had  decided  to  resist  his  approach. 
There  was,  however,  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  among  the 
pueblos,  and  the  consequent  lack  of  unity  of  action  deprived 
their  opposition  of  any  great  force.  Santa  Ana,  Zia,  and  San 
Felipe  gave  tokens  of  friendly  feeling,  and,  on  December  first, 
Vargas  met  the  governors  of  San  Ildefonso,  San  I;azaro,  and 
Tesuque,  and  in  a  short  talk  regained  their  confidence.  After  a 
conference  with  the  governor  of  Santa  Fe,  the  Spanish  army 
marched  into  the  capital  on  the  16th  without  opposition,  and  bear- 
ing the  same  banner  which  had  been  carried  by  Oiiate  when  he 
entered  the  city  almost  a  hundred  years  before. 

After  various  ceremonies  in  the  Plaza,  the  Spaniards  encamped 
on  the  hills  north  of  the  city,  as  the  palace  was  occupied  by  the 
Tanos  Pueblos,  and  the  houses  by  other  Indians.  The  weather 
was  unusually  severe;  so  much  so  that  men  sent  out  to  obtain 
timber  to  repair  the  church  of  San  Miguel  w^ere  obliged  to  return 
to  town ;  and  Vargas,  wishing  to  use  the  public  buildings  for  the 
immigrants,  sent  word  to  the  Tanos  Indians  to  return  to  their 
pueblos  on  the  Galisteo.  This  order,  however,  created  great  com- 
motion, and  the  Indians  concluded  at  a  council  to  resist  the  en- 
trance of  the  Spaniards. 

On  December  28  they  closed  all  the  entrances  to  the  Plaza  and 
fortified  all  the  ramparts.  De  Vargas  then  moved  his  camp  down 
from  the  hills  to  the  plain  close  to  the  city  walls,  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  Indians,  but  was  only  replied  to  by  insults. 
An  immediate  assault  was  then  made  upon  the  town,  and  a  fierce 


120  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

battle  ensued  throughout  the  entire  day.  Companies  of  Tanos 
and  Tehua  Indians  came  over  the  hills  to  the  aid  of  their  friends 
within  the  walls,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  Spaniards  were  great- 
ly assisted  by  the  Indians  of  Pecos  under  their  ever  faithful 
governor,  Juan  Ye.  The  darkness  of  night  separated  the  com- 
batants, but  at  daybreak  of  the  ensuing  day  the  Spaniards  burst 
through  the  walls  and  captured  the  town  with  great  slaughter. 
Many  Indians  escaped,  but  seventy  warriors,  including  Bolsas, 
the  governor,  were  shot  in  the  Plaza.  Four  hundred  women  and 
children  were  i)artitia.ned  among  the  Spanish  families  as  servants, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  with  the  merci- 
ful advice  of  De  Vargas  to  the  recipients  that  they  should  treat 
the  captives  as  fathers  do  their  children. 

The  capture  of  the  capital  had  a  great  effect  but  hostilities 
continued  for  over  two  years  more,  the  governor  showing  wonder- 
ful energy  in  his  actions  and  swiftness  in  his  marches;  and  he 
gradually  succeeded  in  defeating  the  Indians  who  continued  to 
keep  up  the  struggle,  and  in  capturing  their  strongholds.  In  the 
course  of  this  war,  a  number  of  the  pueblos  were  destroyed  or 
abandoned  and  the  mortality  among  the  Indians  from  sickness 
and  exposure,  as  well  as  in  battle,  was  very  great.  At  length  the 
last  remnants  of  opposition  were  overcome,  and  by  the  end  of 
1696  the  whole  country  was  quiet  and  acknowledged  the  Spanish 
authority. 

The  first  place  re-populated,  after  the  revolution,  was  Santa 
Cruz,  to  which  the  families  that  arrived  from  El  Paso  in 
June,  1694,  were  sent  as  soon  as  it  was  safe,  in  1695.  In  all  docu- 
ments thereafter  for  many  years  it  was  called  "La  Villa  Nueva 
de  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Cafiada." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

The  Spanish  Era,  1696  to  1822 

The  five  year  term  of  office  of  De  Vargas,  as  governor,  expired 
in  1696,  and  Pedro  Eodriguez  Cubero  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
De  Vargas  had  applied  for  another  term  but  the  application 
arrived  in  Spain  too  late.  The  king,  however,  appreciated  the 
value  of  the  services  of  the  Reconquistador  and  promised  to  re- 
appoint him  when  Cubero 's  term  should  expire,  and  gave  him 
his  choice  of  the  two  titles  of  marquis  and  count.  Cubero  arrived 
and  conmienced  his  administration  July  2,  1697. 

Considering  the  brilliancy  of  the  re-conquest  by  Vargas,  and 
the  debt  which  the  Spaniards  owed  to  him  on  account  of  his  suc- 
cess after  the  repeated  failures  of  all  others,  it  would  be  supposed 
that  all  would  have  united  in  sustaining  his  administration.  But 
this  was  far  from  the  case,  and  almost  from  the  first  there  was 
friction  between  himself  and  the  Cabildo  which  claimed  to  gov- 
ern the  capital  city.  For  more  than  two  years  he  was  held  as 
prisoner,  under  charges,  in  Santa  Fe;  and,  though  released,  the 
Cabildo  persisted  in  filing  new  charges,  including  those  of  em- 
bezzlement and  oppression.  Juan  Paez  Ilurtado,  who  for  a  full 
generation  was  an  important  figure  in  New  Mexican  affairs,  was 
included  in  these  accusations.  Cubero  ordered  the  arrest  of  both 
Vargas  and  Hurtado,  and  treated  the  former,  especially,  with 
great  hai^hness,  imposing  a  heavy  fine,  confiscating  his  property, 
and  keeping  him  in  close  confinement  until  July,  1700,  when  he 
immediately  left  for  Mexico  to  seek  redress. 

In  1699,  Governor  Cubero  made  a  tour  of  the  west  of  the  terri- 
tory, receiving  the  submission  of  A  coma,  of  Laguna  (then  a  newly 
established  pueblo),  and  of  Zuiii;  and  carrjang  on  active  nego- 


THE  SPANISH  EEA,  1696  TO  1822  123 

tiations  for  the  christianizing  of  the  Moquis.  But  Zuili  itself 
was  abandoned  both  by  the  friar,  Padre  Garaicoechea,  resident 
there,  and  the  military,  in  1703. 

In  the  latter  year,  De  Vargas,  who  had  been  re- appointed 
governor  some  time  before,  re-appeared,  Cubero  having  left  with- 
out waiting  to  meet  him.  The  reconquistador  had  meanwhile 
received  from  the  king  the  title  of  Marquez  de  la  Nava  de  Bra- 
zinas,  and  re-assumed  the  gubernatorial  office  in  Santa  Fe  on 
November  10,  with  his  friend,  Juan  Paez  Hurtado,  as  lieutenant- 
governor.  He  had  many  plans  for  the  firmer  establishment  of 
Spanish  authority,  but  these  were  all  cut  short  by  his  sudden 
death,  while  on  an  expedition  against  the  Navajos  at  Bernalillo, 
on  April  14,  1704.  His  remains  were  interred  behind  the  altar 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Francis,  now  the  Cathedral,  at  Santa  Fe, 
where  his  monument  still  exists. 

Hurtado  succeeded  as  acting-governor,  and  served  till  March 
10,  1705,  when  a  governor  ad  iriterim,  appointed  by  the  viceroy 
of  New  Spain,  arrived,  in  the  person  of  Francisco  Cuervo  y  Val- 
dez.  He  was  a  Knight  of  Santiago  and  had  been  in  office  at 
Guadalajara ;  but  the  king  of  Spain  had  his  own  friends  to  favor, 
and  appointed  Jose  Chacon  Medina  Salazar  y  Yillaseiior,  Mar- 
quez de  la  Pefiuela,  to  succeed  De  Vargas,  when  news  of  the  death 
of  the  latter  reached  Spain.  Communication  with  the  parent 
country,  however,  was  slow  and  infrequent,  and  it  was  not  till 
August  1,  1707,  that  Pefiuela  arrived,  so  that  the  appointee  of 
the  viceroy  had  over  tw^o  years  of  administration. 

During  that  period  there  were  the  usual  troubles  with  the 
Navajos  and  with  the  more  remote  pueblos  in  the  west;  but  Gov- 
ernor Cuervo  showed  the  most  energy  in  founding  or  re-estab- 
lishing towns.  In  1706  he  founded  the  Villa  of  Al]»urquerque, 
which  he  named  in  honor  of  the  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  who  had 
given  him  his  appointment ;  and  established  thirty  families  there. 
He  also  re-settled  the  old  pueblo  of  Galisteo  with  eighteen  Tanos 
families,  and  added  a  number  of  Tehua  families  to  the  scant 
population  of  Pojuaque.  He  called  Alburquerque,  in  the  lirst 
place,  San  Francisco  de  Alburquerque,  but  the  authorities  in 


124  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Mexico  changed  the  name  to  San  Felipe,  in  compliment  to  King 
Philip. 

The  Marquez  de  la  Pefiuela  is  Iniown  to  all  New  Mexicans  and 
multitudes  of  tourists,  from  the  inscription  on  the  ancient  beam 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  ceiling  and  roof  of  the  historic  church 
of  San  Miguel  in  Santa  Fe.  This  reads  as  follows:  ''El  Senor 
Marquez  de  la  Peiiuela  hizo  esta  fabrica;  el  Alferes  Real  Don 
Agustin  Flores  Vergara  su  criado.  Ano  de  1710. ' ' —  His  Lord- 
ship, the  Marquis  de  la  Peiiuela,  erected  this  building;  the  Royal 
Ensign  Don  Augustin  Flores  Vergara,  his  servant.    A,  D.  1710. '  * 

Through  all  this  period  there  is  the  same  succession  of  border 
troubles,  of  incursions  by  wild  Indians  against  both  Spaniards 
and  Pueblos,  and  of  return  expeditions  by  the  latter  against  the 
savages. 

Peiiuela  was  succeeded  by  Juan  Ignacio  Flores  Mogollon,  who 
assumed  the  office  October  5, 1712,  and  continued  as  governor  for 
exactly  three  years,  to  a  day.  He  was  born  in  Seville,  had  been 
governor  of  Nuevo  Leon,  and  was  a  man  of  experience,  but  was 
now  quite  old  and  infirm.  During  his  official  term  there  were 
campaigns  against  the  Navajos  and  the  Apaches,  and  several  at- 
tempts to  arrange  peaceably  for  the  submission  of  the  Moquis. 
The  governor  had  enemies  among  the  Spaniards,  and  was  accused 
of  malfeasance  in  office,  but  through  the  law's  delay  the  trial  did 
not  come  on  until  years  after  his  term  expired.  He  was  relieved 
on  October  5,  1715,  and  the  viceroy  appointed  Felix  Martinez  as 
acting-governor  until  a  regular  appointment  should  be  made  by 
the  king.  The  change  was  one  from  bad  to  worse,  as  Martinez 
was  a  man  of  violent  temper  and  was  accused  of  unblushing  cor- 
ruption in  office,  even  to  the  extent  of  dividing  all  the  Indian 
captives  taken  in  a  fight  with  the  Utes  and  Comanches  with  his 
brother,  and  having  them  sold  on  joint  account  in  New  Biscay. 
Martinez  had  been  a  soldier  under  De  Vargas  and  was  after- 
wards captain  of  the  garrison  at  Santa  Fe.  The  viceroy  became 
dissatisfied  with  his  conduct,  and  in  September,  1716,  ordered 
him  to  report  in  Mexico,  and  directed  Captain  Antonio  Valverde 
y  Cosio,  who  was  in  command  at  El  Paso,  to  proceed  to  Santa  Fe 


THE  SPANISH  EEA,  1696  TO  1822  125 

and  become  acting-governor.  Martinez  refused  to  receive  Val- 
verde,  but,  appointing  Juan  Paez  Hurtado  to  act  as  governor  ad 
interim  while  he  was  absent,  started  on  his  unwelcome  journey  to 
Mexico. 

He  left  on  January  20,  1717,  and  immediately  complications 
arose  between  the  two  acting-governors ;  but  finally  Valverde  was 
confirmed  in  the  office  as  governor,  and  held  that  position  about 
five  years.  He  made  a  tour  of  the  entire  province,  visiting  every 
Spanish  settlement  and  pueblo;  went  on  various  expeditions 
among  the  Indians,  and  endeavored  to  establish  a  permanent 
settlement  and  presidio  at  a  place  in  western  Kansas,  which  ap- 
pears frequently  in  the  chronicles  of  those  days,  called  Cuartelejo. 
About  the  same  time  the  situation  in  Moqui  was  rendered  more 
complicated  by  the  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  to  have  the  spiritual  care 
of  the  people  taken  from  the  Franciscans  and  given  into  their 
charge.  This  rivalr^^  continued  impartially  for  a  number  of 
years,  the  Jesuits  claiming  jurisdiction  from  the  Arizona  side  and 
the  Franciscans  from  that  of  New  Mexico ;  while  the  people  spec- 
ially concerned  refused  to  give  up  their  independence  to  either. 
Valverde  popularized  himself  hy  building  a  chapel  at  Santa  Fe, 
and  also  one  at  San  Ildefonso,  at  his  own  expense. 

The  next  regular  governor  was  Juan  Domingo  de  Bustamante, 
who  held  office  for  two  terms  of  five  years  each,  assuming  the  po- 
sition March  2,  1722.  During  this  period  occurred  the  first 
episcopal  visitations  of  New  Mexico,  by  Bishop  Crespo,  of  Du- 
rango,  who  claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  territory.  The 
first  of  these  was  in  1725,  but  extended  only  to  El  Paso ;  but  five 
years  later  another  visitation  was  made,  and  the  bishop  admin- 
istered confirmation  for  the  first  time  at  Santa  Pe  and  a  few  other 
points,  being  prevented  from  visiting  others  by  the  Franciscans, 
who  claimed  to  have  exclusive  authority  in  New  Mexico.  This 
resulted  in  a  long  controversy  which  occupies  much  space  in  the 
archives  at  Santa  Fe  and  an  account  of  which  was  published  in 
Madrid  in  1738.  The  succeeding  bishop  of  Durango,  Bishop 
Elizacoechea,  made  a  visitation  in  1737,  and  extended  his  journey 
as  far  as  Zuni.     A  record  of  this  appears  in  the  solid  stone  of 


126  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Inscription  Rock,  as  follows :  ' '  On  the  28th  of  September  of  the 
year  1737,  arrived  at  this  place  the  Illustrious  Don  Martin  de 
Elizacoechea,  Bishop  of  Durango :  and  on  the  29th  left  for  Zuiii. ' ' 

The  successor  of  Bustamante  was  Gervasio  Cruzat  y  Gongora, 
in  office  from  1731  to  1736,  and  he  was  succeeded  in  the  latter 
year  by  Enrique  de  Olavide  y  Michelena,  named  temporarily  by 
the  viceroy.  He  was  appointed  on  May  17,  1736,  but  may  not 
have  arrived  until  somewhat  later,  and  served  until  the  regular 
governor  appointed  by  the  king,  Gaspar  Domingo  de  Mendoza, 
arrived  in  1739.  During  his  administration  the  number  of  Span- 
ish inhabitants,  not  including  soldiers  and  their  families,  was 
found  to  be  9,747,  residing  in  24  towns. 

The  next  governor  was  Joaquin  Codallos  y  Rabal,  a  major  of 
the  Spanish  army,  who  held  the  office  from  1743  to  1749,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Tomas  Velez  Cachupin  in  May,  1749.  During  the 
administration  of  Governor  Codallos,  in  1748,  the  pueblo  of  San- 
dia  was  re-established  by  Padre  Menchero,  a  zealous  Franciscan, 
who  collected  a  large  number  of  Tihua  Indians,  rescued  from 
Moqui,  and  settled  them  on  the  Rio  Grande.  This  same  priest 
induced  about  500  Navajos  to  settle  at  CeboUeta  in  1746 ;  but  they 
preferred  the  free  life  of  the  mountains  and  prairies  and  aban- 
doned the  place  in  1750.  Wars  with  the  Utes  and  Comanches 
were  almost  as  regular  as  the  seasons,  but  with  varying  results. 
In  October,  1747,  Governor  Codallos  overtook  a  large  body  of 
them  above  Abiquiu,  killed  107,  captured  206,  and  secured  about 
1,000  horses.  In  1751  Governor  Cachupin  almost  equaled  this 
achievement  by  killing  101,  and  capturing  the  remaining  44,  of  a 
band  of  Comanches  who  had  made  a  raid  on  Galisteo;  and  only 
lost  one  of  his  own  164  men. 

In  1754,  Governor  Cachupin  Avas  succeeded  by  Francisco  An- 
tonio Maria  del  Valle,  whose  memory  is  kept  green  at  Santa  Fe 
by  the  gift  made  by  himself  and  his  wife  to  the  Church  of  Our 
Lady  of  Light  on  the  Plaza,  of  a  carved  stone  reredos,  which  is 
now  to  be  seen  back  of  the  altar  in  the  cathedral.  The  church 
was  his  own  gift  to  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison  and  hence  was 
called  the  ' ' Castrense, "  or  military  chapel;  and  the  reredos. 


THE  SPANISH  EEA,  1696  TO  1822  127 

which  is  carved  in  relief  and  extends  across  the  entire  width  of 
the  chancel  recess,  bears  two  inscriptions  in  ovals,  reading  as  fol- 
lows: "A  devocion  de  Seiior  Don  Francisco  Antonio  Marin  del 
Valle,  Gobernador  y  Capitan  General  de  este  Reino ;"  and, '' Y  de 
su  esposa  Maria  Ygnacia  Martinez  de  TJgarte,  1761." 

In  1760,  Bishop  Tamaron,  of  Durango,  made  a  visitation  which 
extended  over  the  entire  territory  and  occupied  about  four 
months,  from  April  to  July ;  during  which  he  is  said  to  have  con- 
firmed no  less  than  11,271  persons. 

Governor  Del  Valle  held  office  till  late  in  that  year,  and  then 
Mateo  Antonio  de  Mendoza  acted  for  a  few  months,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1761  by  Manuel  Portillo  Urrisola  for  another  short  pe- 
riod; and  then,  on  February  1,  1762,  Governor  Cachupin,  who 
had  been  re-appointed  by  the  king,  again  took  possession  of  the 
office.  During  this  second  term  of  Cachupin  the  first  expedition 
into  what  is  now  Colorado  was  made  in  search  of  mineral  wealth. 
The  exploring  party  was  in  charge  of  Juan  Maria  Rivera,  and 
penetrated  the  San  Juan  country  and  also  the  region  of  the  Gim- 
nison  and  Uncompage,  where  they  discovered  considerable  silver 
and  consequently  named  the  mountain  anc^  the  river  La  Plata. 
In  1763,  the  archives  tell  of  a  lengthy  proceeding  against  certain 
Indians  of  the  pueblo  of  Abiquiu  for  alleged  witchcraft,  which 
resulted  in  soldiers  being  sent  to  destroy  some  stone  objects  sup- 
posed to  be  used  in  idolatrous  ceremonies,  and  several  Indians 
being  sentenced  to  practical  slavery. 

After  this  second  term  of  Governor  Cachupin,  in  1767,  came 
Pedro  Fermin  de  Mendinueta,  as  governor  and  captain-general ; 
and  he  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  officials  to  hold  this  latter  title. 
He  was  a  colonel  in  the  army  and  a  Knight  of  Santiago.  At  this 
time  the  number  of  Spanish  soldiers  stationed  in  the  territory 
was  only  eighty,  who  had  headquarters  at  Santa  Fe;  and  the 
governor  reported  that  besides  the  troops  located  there,  there  were 
about  200  men  among  the  colonists  capable  of  ndlitary  service, 
but  very  poorly  supplied  with  arms.  Many  explorations  were 
made  about  this  time,  mostly  in  the  direction  of  the  Pacific.  In 
1774,  Captain  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza  headed  an  expedition  to 


128  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  west  which  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Spanish  settlements  in 
California  by  the  way  of  the  Gila.  In  1776,  Padre  Escalante  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  Pacific  hj  a  northern  route  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  Utah  Lake,  when  he  was  compelled  to  return  by  way  of 
Moqui;  and  about  the  same  time  Padre  Francisco  Garces  made 
his  memorable  trip  along  the  valley  of  the  Colorado  and  through 
parts  of  California  and  Arizona. 

Governor  Mendinueta  continued  in  office  until  March,  1778, 
when  Francisco  Trebol  Navarro,  who  for  a  number  of  years  had 
been  alcalde  mayor  of  the  Albuquerque  district,  was  acting- 
governor  for  a  short  time ;  and  toward  the  end  of  the  year.  Ansa, 
now  a  lieutenant-colonel,  was  appointed  governor.  He  was  a 
native  of  Sonora,  familiar  with  the  country  and  people,  and  also 
with  the  Indians,  and  made  an  excellent  official.  He  carried  on 
a  vigorous  warfare  against  the  Comanches,  especially  in  1779, 
when  he  made  a  rapid  march  to  the  northeast  with  about  1,000 
men,  and  killed  Cuerno  Yerde,  the  Comanche  chieftain,  as  well 
as  securing  a  great  victory  over  the  tribe.  During  his  adminis- 
tration both  famine  and  pestilence  afflicted  the  land,  the  former 
being  so  severe  in  the  Moqui  region  that  during  three  years  with- 
out rain  there  were  6,698  deaths,  and  the  population  was  reduced 
from  7,494  to  798,  and  of  30,000  sheep  but  300  remained;  and  in 
the  Pueblo  towns  of  New  Mexico  5,025  Indians  died  with  small- 
pox in  1780-81. 

In  1789,  Fernando  de  la  Concha  came  as  governor ;  and  in  turn 
he  was  succeeded,  in  1794,  by  Fernando  Chacon,  who  was  still  in 
office  at  the  end  of  the  century.  At  this  time  and  down  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  traffic  over  the  Santa  Fe  trail  we  are  told  that 
there  was  no  money  in  New  Mexico,  but  all  business  transacted 
was  by  exchange  or  barter  of  land  or  animals  or  commodities. 
There  was  a  great  fair  every  year  at  Taos  in  mid-summer,  when 
the  Comanches  and  other  wild  tribes  came  in  from  the  plains, 
with  skins,  principally  of  buffalo  and  deer,  buffalo  meat,  etc., 
for  exchange  for  iron  implements,  beads,  and  various  manufac- 
tured articles.  In  January  occurred  the  annual  fair  at  Chihua- 
hua, which  was  attended  by  the  people  of  all  the  northern  pro- 


THE  SPANISH  ERA,  1696  TO  1822  129 

vinces,  arid  to  which  the  New  Mexicans  went  in  long  caravans 
for  protection  against  hostile  attack  and  mutual  assistance  while 
passing  through  deserts  like  the  Jornada  del  Muerto.  These 
caravans  sometimes  included  no  less  than  500  persons,  and  their 
departure  and  arrival  were  the  great  events  of  the  year  in  a  busi- 
ness way.  The  merchants  at  Chihuahua  became  rich  through  this 
trade,  in  which  they  had  a  great  advantage ;  and  the  traders  in 
their  turn  made  very  large  profits  from  the  Spanish  settlers  and 
the  Indians.  An  instance  is  given  of  the  purchase  in  Chihuahua 
of  a  Guacamaya,  a  parrot  of  gay  plumage,  for  eight  dollars,  and 
the  sale  of  the  feathers  in  New  Mexico  for  $492.  This  trade  con- 
tinued to  be  all  of  the  commercial  business  of  the  countrv^  until 
the  opening  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  from  the  Missouri  established 
communication  with  the  United  States. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  new  century,  in  the  year  1800,  a 
grant  was  made  for  the  settlement  of  Cebolleta,  intended  largely 
as  a  bulwark  against  the  Navajos.  In  1803  the  Indians  asked  to 
be  allowed  to  settle  there,  also,  but  this  was  refused  by  the  gov- 
ernor. Incursions  followed,  and  finally  Lieutenant  Antonio  Nar- 
bona,  who  had  been  sent  from  Chihuahua,  to  assist  the  New  Mexi- 
cans, in  January,  1805,  defeated  the  Navajos  in  the  Caiion  de 
Chelly,  killing  and  capturing  a  considerable  number. 

Soon  after,  in  the  spring  of  1805,  Colonel  Joaquin  del  Real 
Alencaster  came  to  succeed  Governor  Chacon,  who  had  served 
two  terms  of  ^ve  years  each.  In  1806,  owing  to  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana  by  the  United  States  three  years  before,  and  the  fear 
that  there  might  be  difficulties  along  the  frontier.  Lieutenant 
Melgares  was  sent  from  Chihuahua  with  100  dragoons  on  an  ex- 
pedition along  the  border  to  explore  the  country  and  ponciliate 
the  Indians.  He  followed  the  Red  river  into  the  present  Okla- 
homa, marched  northerly  to  the  Arkansas,  visited  the  Pawnee 
nation  in  Kansas,  distributed  Spanish  flags  and  medals,  and  then 
returned  to  Santa  Fe  in  October.  The  marks  of  his  work  among 
the  Indians  were  found  by  Lieutenant  Pike,  when  he  passed 
through  the  same  section  a  short  time  after. 

The  first  arrivals  across  the  plains  from  the  Mississippi  Valley 


130  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

occurred  in  1^04  and  1805,  when  La  Lande  and  Pursley  appeared 
in  Santa  Fe ;  and  on  March  3, 1806,  Lieutenant  Pike  and  his  little 
company  were  brought  into  the  city  from  the  north.  These  events 
will  be  treated  of  at  greater  length  in  separate  chapters ;  Pike 's 
exploits  in  Chapter  XIV,  and  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  in  Chapter 
XVII. 

Governor  Alencaster  was  succeeded  in  1807  by  Alberto  Maynez 
as  acting-governor,  who  also  served  at  a  later  date. 

The  next  regular  governor  was  Jose  Manrique.  He  was  a 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  and  was  governor  or  governor  ad 
interim  from  1808  to  1814,  and  again  for  a  short  time  in  1819. 
In  1811,  Gen.  Nemecio  Salcedo,  general  of  the  department  with 
headquarters  at  Chihuahua,  made  certain  orders  respecting  lands 
in  New  Mexico  which  have  led  to  his  name  being  placed  in  some 
lists  of  governors;  but  he  seems  never  to  have  had  that  or  any 
other  civil  title,  and  the  powers  he  exercised  he  probably  assumed 
by  virtue  of  his  military  authority. 

During  the  term  of  Governor  Manrique  occurred  the  election 
of  the  only  representative  which  New  Mexico  ever  had  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes.  In  the  troublous  times  in  Spain,  caused  by  the 
invasion  of  the  French  and  the  coronation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte 
as  king,  a  liberal  policy  toward  the  colonies  was  for  the  first  time 
adopted  in  order  to  unite  them  more  firmly  with  the  old  monarchy 
and  the  fortunes  of  King  Ferdinand  VII,  and  New  Mexico  was 
accorded  one  representative  in  the  Cortes.  There  were  three  lead- 
ing candidates  for  this  distinguished  position,  Antonio  Ortiz, 
Juan  Rafael  Ortiz,  and  Pedro  Bautista  Pino,  and  at  a  meeting  of 
the  electoral  body,  held  on  August  11, 1810,  the  latter  was  chosen. 
He  proceeded  to  take  the  long  journey  by  the  way  of  Mexico  and 
Vera  Cruz  to  Spain,  where  the  regular  Spanish  government  was 
then  in  session  at  Cadiz,  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom,  includ- 
ing Madrid,  being  in  the  power  of  the  French.  While  residing 
in  Spain  he  made  and  published  a  Report,  descriptive  of  New 
Mexico,  its  people,  and  government,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  documents  connected  with  New  Mexican  history.  It  was 
reprinted  in  Mexico  in  1839.    He  endeavored  to  obtain  many  ad- 


THE  SPANISH  ERA,  1696  TO  1822  131 

vantages  for  his  province,  and  succeeded,  in  securing  considerable 
recognition,  but  the  difficulties  of  the  Spanish  government  and 
the  revolutions  which  followed  in  Spanish  America  prevented  any 
actual  results  being  achieved. 

Alberto  Maynez  was  the  next  executive,  with  the  title  of  civil 
and  military  governor.  He  served  in  1814  and  1815,  and  again  in 
1817. 

Pedro  Maria  de  Allande  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1816,  and 
again  in  1818,  after  the  second  period  of  Maynez 's  authority. 

Facundo  Melgares  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  governors,  the 
revolution  of  1821  being  successful  in  establishing  Mexican  inde- 
pendence. It  was  Governor  Melgares  who,  as  lieutenant,  com- 
manded the  brilliant  expedition  into  the  Indian  Territory  in  1806, 
and  subsequently  had  charge  of  the  escort  of  Pike  to  Chihuahua, 
in  1807.  By  the  law  of  May  6,  1822,  his  term  as  governor  ex- 
pired on  the  succeeding  5th  of  July. 

Melgares  was  a  European  of  distinguished  family.  He  was  of 
liberal  education,  immense  fortune,  great  military  ability,  and  a 
high  sense  of  honor.  The  long  line  of  Spanish  governors,  be- 
ginning with  Oiiate,  established  by  De  Vargas,  and  containing 
many  distinguished  names,  finds  a  fitting  termination  in  the  per- 
son of  Melgares,  of  whom  history  speaks  only  in  terms  of  honor 
and  of  praise. 


CHAPTEE  XIV 

The  Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Pike  — 1806 

Very  shortly  after  the  acquisition  of  the  vast  territory  then 
embraced  under  the  name  of  Louisiana  from  the  French  by  the 
United  States,  the  government  of  the  latter  undertook  the  explor- 
ation of  such  portions  of  this  immense  domain  as  were  then  un- 
known, save  to  the  aborigines.  Captains  Meriwether  Lewis  and 
William  Clark  were  selected  by  the  president  to  explore  the  then 
un visited  sources  of  the  Missouri,  and  Lieutenant  Zebulon  Mont- 
gomery Pike,  of  the  sixth  infantry,  to  follow  the  Mississippi  to  its 
source;  both  expeditions  having  to  traverse  unbroken  wilder- 
nesses and  encounter  untold  hardships  and  privations.  The  expe- 
dition of  Lieutenant  Pike  occupied  nearly  nine  months,  extending 
from  August  9,  1805,  when  he  sailed  from  St.  Ijouis,  to  the  last 
day  of  April,  1806,  when  he  returned. 

Soon  after  his  arrival  he  was  requested  by  General  AVilkinson 
to  take  command  of  another  expedition  then  being  fitted  out  at 
St.  Louis,  the  primary''  object  of  which  was  to  conduct  a  number 
of  Osage  Indian  captives,  and  also  a  deputation  of  that  tribe 
recently  returned  from  Washington,  up  the  Missouri  and  Osage 
rivers  to  the  Indian  town  of  Grand  Osage.  The  instructions  then 
provided  that  Lieutenant  Pike  should  endeavor  to  bring  about 
a  permanent  peace  between  the  Kansas  and  Osage  nations ;  and 
afterwards  to  ''establish  a  good  understanding  with  the  Yanctons, 
Tetaus,  or  Camanches,"  and  finally  ''to  ascertain  the  direction, 
extent,  and  navigation  of  the  Arkansaw  and  Red  rivers. "  As  to 
the  possibility  of  meeting  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico,  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  general  were  as  follows : 

"As  your  interview  with  the  Camanches  will  probably  lead 
you  to  the  head  branches  of  the  Arkansaw  and  Red  Rivers,  you 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806       133 

may  find  yourself  approximated  to  the  settlements  of  New  Mex- 
ico, and  there  it  will  be  necessary  you  should  move  with  great 
circumspection  to  keep  clear  of  any  hunting  or  reconnoitering 
parties  from  that  province  and  to  prevent  alarm  or  offense;  be- 
cause the  affairs  of  Spain  and  the  United  States  appear  to  be  on 
the  point  of  amicable  adjustment,  and  moreover  it  is  the  desire 
of  the  President  to  cultivate  the  friendship  and  harmonious  inter- 
course of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  particularly  our  near 
neighbors,  the  Spaniards. ' ' 

This  expedition  started  from  the  landing  at  Belle  Fontaine  on 
July  15,  1806  —  the  party  consisting  of  tw^o  lieutenants,  one  sur- 
geon, one  sergeant,  two  corporals,  sixteen  privates,  and  one  in- 
terpreter. The  surgeon  was  Dr.  Robinson,  who  Avas  a  volunteer, 
giving  his  services  as  compensation  for  transportation  and  accom- 
modation. Without  dwelling  on  this  expedition  until  it  neared 
the  Spanish  boundary,  it  may  be  said  that  from  August  20th  to 
September  1st,  Lieutenant  Pike  remained  at  Grand  Osage,  hold- 
ing councils  with  the  chiefs  of  the  Osage  nation,  and  that  on 
September  29th  he  held  a  grand  council  with  the  Pawnees  at 
their  principal  village,  not  less  than  400  warriors  being  present. 

At  this  point  he  saw  the  first  evidences  of  the  Spanish  expedi- 
tion which  had  recently  visited  there  from  New  Mexico.  This 
expedition,  which  was  the  most  important  that  ever  penetrated 
to  the  eastward  into  the  Indian  country,  at  least  in  modern  times, 
consisted  of  100  dragoons  of  the  regular  army  drawn  from  Chi- 
huahua, and  500  mounted  militia  of  New  Mexico,  all  equipped 
with  ammunition  for  six  months,  and  each  man  leading  two 
horses  and  a  mule,  making  the  whole  number  of  animals  2,075. 
The  whole  force  was  under  the  command  of  Don  Faeundo  Mel- 
gares,  a  lieutenant  in  the  Spanish  army,  a  man  of  large  wealth 
and  liberal  education,  who  had  gained  much  distinction  in  pre- 
vious expeditions  against  the  Apaches  and  other  hostile  Indians. 
They  descended  the  Red  river  233  leagues,  held  councils  there 
with  the  chief  of  the  Tetaus,  and  afterwards  struck  off  northeast 
to  the  Arkansas  river,  and  thence  to  the  Pawnee  nation,  where 
they  held  a  grand  council,  presented  Spanish  flags  and  medals, 
and  also  a  commission  to  Characterish,  the  head  chief,  from  the 


134  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

governor  of  New  Mexico  (dated  Santa  Fe,  June  15,  1806),  and 
finally  returned  to  Santa  Fe  in  October.  When  the  distance 
traveled  and  the  country  and  tribes  passed  through  are  consid- 
ered, this  expedition  rivals  those  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  Pike, 
for  its  extent,  difficulty,  and  importance. 

After  leaving  the  Pawnee  capital,  Lieutenant  Pike  proceeded 
westerly  between  the  Arkansas  and  the  Kansas  rivers  (always 
called  in  his  narrative  "Arkansaw"  and  "Kans"),  seeing  many 
prairie-dogs,  which  he  calls  Wishtonwishes  from  the  sound  of 
their  cry,  and  of  which  he  tells  us  almost  the  exact  story  after- 
wards repeated  by  Horace  Greeley  of  their  living  in  the  same 
hole  with  a  rattlesnake,  a  horned  frog,  and  a  land  tortoise.  On 
the  28th  of  October,  in  accordance  with  instructions,  he  detached 
Lieutenant  Wilkinson  with  five  soldiers  to  make  the  trip  down  the 
Arkansas  river  in  canoes,  for  the  purx)ose  of  exploring  its  whole 
course  to  the  Mississippi.  On  the  15th  of  November  he  came  in 
sight  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  soon  after  encountered  almost 
constant  snows,  suffering  great  hardships  —  as  the  company  had 
only  summer  cotton  clothes  —  and  on  the  3d  of  December  reached 
and  calculated  the  altitude  of  the  great  mountain  which  bears  his 
name  —  ''Pike's  Peak."  He  mentions  it  as  known  to  all  the 
savage  nations  for  hundreds  of  miles  around,  and  spoken  of  with 
admiration  by  the  Spaniards,  being  the  limit  of  their  travels  to 
the  northward.  Pike's  measurement  made  it  10,581  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  prairie,  which  he  estimated  at  8,000  feet,  thus 
making  the  total  elevation  18,581,  whereas  the  latest  estimates 
make  it  only  14,147 ;  and  he  says  that  in  all  the  wanderings  of 
the  party  for  over  two  months,  from  November  14th  to  January 
27th,  it  was*  never  out  of  their  sight. 

The  hardships  endured  during  this  period  are  almost  beyond 
description ;  the  feet  of  the  men  became  frosted  so  that  they  could 
only  proceed  with  the  utmost  pain,  and  finally  several  had  to  be 
left  in  sheltered  localities,  and  supplied  with  food  from  time  to 
time  by  the  remainder.  The  party  subsisted  entirely  on  the  pro- 
duct of  the  chase,  and  sometimes  for  as  long  as  three  full  days 
were  without  a  mouthful  to  eat.     In  December  the  expedition 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  —  1806      135 

determined  to  leave  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  and  proceed 
southerly,  to  strike  the  headwaters  of  the  Red  river,  which  they 
expected  to  find  at  that  point.  Soon  after  they  met  a  stream 
which  they  followed  eastward  slowly,  on  account  of  their  w^retched 
physical  condition,  and  the  necessity  of  stopping  daily  to  hunt; 
but  imagine  their  feelings,  almost  of  despair,  when  on  January 
5th  they  found  that  they  had  thus  been  led  back  to  the  Arkansas, 
and  were  at  the  camp  which  they  had  occupied  nearly  a  month 
before !  Again  they  started  southerly,  in  search  of  the  Red  river, 
determining  to  cross  the  mountains  before  them  on  foot;  each  of 
the  party,  including  the  commander  himself  and  Dr,  Robinson, 
carrying  forty-five  pounds  of  baggage,  besides  provisions  and 
arms,  making  an  aggregate  of  seventy  pounds  burden.  At  length, 
on  the  30th  of  January,  they  arrived  in  the  evening  on  the  banks 
of  a  stream  of  some  magnitude,  which  they  believed  to  be  the 
long-looked-for  Red  river.  Here  they  concluded  to  build  a  kind 
of  stockade,  where  four  or  five  might  defend  themselves  while  the 
others  went  back  to  carry  assistance  to  the  poor  fellows  who 
had  necessarily  been  left  at  various  points,  on  account  of  in- 
ability to  travel;  the  intention  being,  when  all  should  be  as- 
sembled, to  proceed  in  canoes  or  on  rafts  down  the  Red  river 
to  Natchitoches,  then  the  most  westerly  U.  S.  post  in  southern 
Louisiana.  At  this  point  Dr.  Robinson,  who  had  business  in  New 
Mexico,  left  the  party  in  order  to  proceed  to  Santa  Pe,  which 
they  calculated  was  then  nearer  than  it  would  be  from  any  other 
point. 

While  most  of  the  men  were  absent,  in  search  of  those  left  be- 
hind, and  the  remainder  were  at  work  building  the  fort.  Pike 
himself  usually  employed  himself  in  hunting ;  and  on  February 
15,  while  thus  occupied  with  a  single  soldier,  he  discovered  two 
horsemen  near  the  summit  of  a  hill,  but  half  a  mile  distant.  After 
much  parleying  they  were  induced  to  come  to  the  camp,  and 
proved  to  be  a  Spanish  dragoon  and  a  civilized  Indian,  both  well 
armed.  They  reported  that  Robinson  had  arrived  in  Santa  Fe, 
and  been  received  with  great  kindness  by  the  governor.  They 
seemed  surprised  at  the  appearance  of  the  fort,  but  Pike  informed 


136  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

them  of  his  intention  of  going  dowjQ  the  river  to  Natchitoches  as 
soon  as  his  party  was  prepared;  and  at  the  same  time  said  that 
if  the  governor  of  New  Mexico  would  send  an  officer  with  an  in- 
terpreter, it  would  be  a  pleasure  to  satisfy  any  doubts  he  might 
have  as  to  the  intentions  of  this  American  party  in  being  so  near 
his  borders.  The  two  visitors  stated  that  they  could  reach  Santa 
Fe  in  two  days  (which  was  not  true),  but  never  intimated  that 
Pike  was  wrong  in  supposing  himself  on  the  banks  of  the  lied 
river.  The  building  of  the  fort  continued,  and  gradually  the 
frozen  men  who  had  been  left  behind  were  brought  in  —  with  the 
exception  of  two  still  unable  to  walk.  Of  them  Pike  says,  ' '  they 
sent  me  some  of  the  bones  taken  out  of  their  feet,  and  conjured 
me  by  all  that  was  sacred  not  to  leave  them  to  perish  far  from 
the  civilized  world. ' ' 

On  the  26th  of  February  the  report  of  the  guard's  gun  an- 
nounced the  appearance  of  strangers,  and  soon  after  two  French- 
men arrived.  These  informed  Pike  that  Governor  Alencaster,  of 
New  Mexico,  had  heard  that  the  IJte  Indians  were  about  to  attack 
the  little  expedition,  and  therefore  had  sent  an  officer  with  fifty 
dragoons  to  protect  them.  Scarcely  had  this  notifrcation  been 
received,  when  the  Spanish  party  came  in  sight,  consisting  not 
only  of  the  fifty  dragoons  but  also  fifty  mounted  militia  of  the 
province.  Pike  sent  the  Frenchmen  to  arrange  a  meeting  be- 
tween himself  and  the  commander  of  the  troops,  and  then  sallied 
forth  to  hold  the  interview  on  the  prairie  near  the  fort.  The 
officers  in  command  of  the  Spanish  expedition  were  Ygnacio 
Saltelo  and  Bartolome  Fernandez,  both  lieutenants.  After  some 
conversation.  Pike  invited  them  to  enter  his  fortification  and  they 
breakfasted  together,  after  which  the  Spanish  officers  said  that 
the  governor,  having  learned  that  Pike 's  party  had  lost  its  route, 
had  sent  them  to  offer  all  necessary  assistance  to  reach  the  Red 
river,  the  nearest  navigable  point  of  which  was  eight  days'  jour- 
ney from  Santa  Fe.  **What,"  said  Pike,  interrupting  him,  "is 
not  this  the  Red  river  ? ' '  Imagine  his  amazement  at  the  answer 
*'No,  sir!  it  is  the  Rio  del  Norte."  These  words  showed  that  he 
had  unwittingly  passed  the  frontiers  of  the  United  States,  and 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806      137 

actually  erected  a  fort  on  Spanish  soil,  wdtliin  the  bordere  of 
New  Mexico.  His  first  act,  on  receiving  this  astonishing  infor- 
mation, was  to  order  his  men  to  take  do^\ra.the  American  fiag, 
which  had  been  hoisted  over  the  works.  The  Spanish  com- 
mander then  said  that  the  governor  was  anxious  to  see  them  at 
Santa  Fe  as  soon  as  possible,  and  had  provided  100  horses  and 
mules  to  take  the  party  and  their  baggage  to  the  capital.  Pike 
at  first  refused  to  go  until  the  detachment  which  he  had  sent 
under  a  sergeant  to  bring  in  the  two  men  still  absent  had  re- 
turned; but  it  was  finally  arranged  that  he  should  proceed  with 
one  of  the  lieutenants  and  half  the  Spanish  force,  leaving  two 
men  to  meet  the  sergeant 's  party  on  their  return,  to  inform  them 
of  the  changed  aspect  of  affairs.  Pike  in  telling  of  this  event 
expresses  the  reluctance  with  which  he  abandoned  the  fort  built 
with  so  much  labor,  and  which  was  admirably  situated  for  de- 
fense; but  finding  that  he  had  really,  though  unintentionally, 
trespassed  on  Spanish  territory,  and  being  confident  that  the 
officers  sent  had  orders  to  bring  him  and  his  men  to  Santa  Fe  by 
force,  if  necessary,  he  thought  it  best  to  show  an  entire  willing- 
ness to  make  an  explanation  to  the  governor,  rather  than  appear 
to  go  under  restraint. 

Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  exact  localitj^  of 
Pike 's  Port ;  but  by  a  careful  reading  of  his  narrative  it  can  bo 
determined  almost  to  a  certainty.  He  first  saw  the  Rio  Grande 
from  the  top  of  a  high  hill,  two  days  after  his  party  struck  a 
small  river  running  west,  which  they  hailed  as  a  tributary  to  the 
Red  river,  and  followed  through  what  would  now  be  called  a 
canon,  along  the  foot  of  the  White  Mountains  (Sierra  Blanca). 
A  glance  at  a  modern  map  will  show  that  the  small  river  was 
the  Sangre  de  Cristo ;  and  the  point  from  which  the  Rio  Grande 
was  first  seen,  near  the  site  of  Fort  Garland.  After  reaching 
the  Rio  Grande  they  descended  eighteen  miles,  where  they  found 
a  large  western  branch  emptying  into  the  main  stream.  This 
must  have  been  the  present  Conejos  river.  Five  miles  up  this 
river,  on  the  north  bank,  and  with  the  water  itself  fonning  the 
defense  on  one  side,  was  where  he  built  his  fort;  which  was  so 


138  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ingeniously  constructed  that  it  could  only  be  entered  by  creeping 
through  a  hole,  after  passing  a  draw-bridge  over  the  ditch. 

The  description  of  the  journey  to  Santa  Fe  shows  the  above 
to  be  the  correct  location  of  the  fort.  The  first  town  of  import- 
ance which  they  saw,  was  after  a  march  of  a  little  more  than  100 
miles,  being  the  village  of  Warm  Spring,  or  ''L'Eau  Chaud,"  as 
Pike  calls  it,  or,  as  now  Imown,  Ojo  Caliente.  Here  he  found  the 
first  real  Mexican  houses  which  he  had  seen,  and  describes  at  some 
length  the  flat  roofs,  water-spouts,  narrow  doors,  and  small  win- 
dows —  some  with  mica  lights.  The  springs  he  descnbes  as  two 
in  number,  about  ten  yards  apart,  each  affording  water  enough 
for  a  mill,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  as  more  than  thirty- 
three  degrees  above  blood-heat.  The  next  day  they  marched 
down  Ojo  Caliente  river  to  its  junction  with  the  Chama  (which 
he  calls  Conejos),  observing  on  the  way  the  ruins  of  ancient 
pueblo  towns,  as  well  as  several  little  inhabited  villages,  all  of 
which  had  round  towers  to  defend  the  inhabitants  from  Indian 
incursions.  Here  they  first  experienced  the  characteristic  hospi- 
tality of  the  Mexican  people;  who  invited  them  into  their  houses, 
dressed  the  feet  of  the  young  men  who  had  been  frozen  —  and  in 
short,  to  use  the  language  of  Pike,  ''brought  to  my  recollection 
the  hospitality  of  the  ancient  patriarchs,  and  caused  me  to  sigh 
with  regret  at  the  corruption  of  that  noble  principle  by  the  polish 
of  modern  ages." 

The  same  day  they  continued  down  the  Chama  to  the  Rio 
Grande  and  across  to  "the  village  of  St.  John's"  (pueblo  of  San 
Juan),  which  he  says  was  the  residence  of  the  president  priest  of 
the  province,  who  had  resided  in  it  forty  years.  The  house-tops 
were  crowded  when  the  party  entered,  just  as  they  would  be  on  a 
similar  occasion  today;  and  all  the  officers  and  men  were  hos- 
pitably treated.  The  next  morning  they  marched  after  breakfast, 
and  in  about  six  miles  came  to  a  village  of  2,000  souls,  and  in 
seven  miles  further  to  a  small  town  of  500  inhabitants.  These 
places  are  not  named  by  the  narrator,  but  must  be  Santa  Cruz 
and  San  Yldefonso.  Seventeen  miles  further  on  they  came  to  a 
Pueblo  town  (the  Pueblos  are  always  distinguished  by  Pike  as 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806       139 

''civilized  Indians")  containing  400  people.  While  the  estimate 
of  population  is  a  good  deal  exaggerated,  this  is  evidently  Te- 
suque.  Here  they  changed  horses  and  prepared  for  their  entry 
into  the  capital  and  appearance  before  the  governor.  The  con- 
dition of  Pike's  party  as  to  clothing  was  so  lamentable  as  to  be 
almost  ludicrous.  When  they  left  their  horses  on  the  Arkansas, 
and  commenced  carrying  everything  on  their  backs,  all  articles 
were  abandoned  that  were  not  essential  to  safety.  Ammunition, 
tools,  leather,  etc.,  claimed  the  first  places;  the  ornamental  was 
a  minor  consideration.  So  on  arriving  at  Santa  Fe  the  com- 
mander was  dressed  in  blue  trousers,  moccasins  (mockinsons) 
blanket,  coat,  and  a  cap  made  of  scarlet  cloth  lined  with  fur  skin ; 
and  the  men,  in  leggings,  breech-cloths,  and  leather  coats  —  and 
not  a  hat  in  the  whole  company.  In  such  garb  they  did  not  make 
a  very  imposing  appearance. 

They  had  left  the  fort  on  the  Conejos,  February  26,  and  ar- 
rived at  Santa  Fe  on  the  evening  of  Tuesday,  March  3.  Pike  de- 
scribes the  length  of  the  city  on  the  creek  as  about  a  mile,  and 
that  it  was  about  three  streets  in  width : 

' '  Its  appearance  from  a  distance  struck  my  mind  with  the  same 
effect  as  a  fleet  of  the  flat-boats  which  are  seen  in  the  spring  and 
fall  seasons  descending  the  Ohio.  On  the  north  side  of  the  town 
is  the  square  of  soldiers'  houses.  The  public  square  is  in  the 
center  of  the  town,  on  the  north  side  of  which  is  situated  the 
palace  or  government  house,  ^vith  the  quarters  for  the  guards,  etc. 
The  other  side  of  the  square  is  occupied  by  the  clergy  and  public 
offices.  In  general  the  houses  have  a  shed  before  the  front,  some 
of  which  have  a  flooring  of  brick:  the  consequence  is  that  the 
streets  are  very  narrow,  say  in  general  25  feet.  The  supposed 
population  is  4,500." 

In  another  description  of  Santa  Fe,  which  Captain  Pike  includ- 
ed in  the  appendix  to  his  report,  he  gives  a  fuller  description  of 
the  place  and  its  surroundings,  as  follows : 

' '  In  the  center  of  the  public  square,  one  side  of  which  forms  the 
flank  of  the  soldiers'  square,  which  is  closed  and  in  some  degree 
defended  by  round  towers  in  the  angles  which  flank  the  four  cur- 
tains ;  another  side  of  the  square  is  formed  by  the  palace  of  the 


140  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

governor,  his  guard-houses,  etc.  The  third  side  is  occui)ied  by  the 
priests  and  their  suite,  and  the  fourth  by  the  chapetones  who  re- 
side in  the  city. ' ' 

On  entering  the  city.  Lieutenant  Pike  was  conducted  to  the 
palace,  where  he  says : 

^'We  were  ushered  in  through  various  rooms,  the  floors  of 
which  were  covered  with  skins  of  buffalo,  bear,  or  some  other  ani- 
mal. We  waited  in  a  chamber  for  some  time  until  his  excellency 
appeared,  when  we  arose,  and  the  following  conversation  took 
place  in  French : 

' '  Gov.     Do  you  speak  French  ? 

''Pike.     Yes,  sir. 

' '  Gov.     You  come  to  reconnoitre  our  country,  do  you  ? 

' '  Pike.     I  marched  to  reconnoitre  our  own. 

' '  Gov.     In  what  character  are  you  ? 

''Pike.  In  my  proper  character,  an  officer  of  the  United  States 
Army. 

' '  Gov.     How  many  men  have  you  ? 

"Pike.     Fifteen. 

' '  Gov.     AVhen  did  you  leave  St.  Louis  ? 

"Pike.     15th  of  July. 

' '  Gov.     I  think  you  marched  in  June. 

"Pike.     No,  sir. 

' '  Gov.  Well,  return  with  Mr.  Bartholomew  to  his  house,  and 
come  here  again  at  seven  o  'clock,  and  bring  your  papers. 

"At  the  hour  appointed  we  returned,  when  the  governor  de- 
manded my  papers.  I  told  him  I  understood  my  trunk  was  taken 
possession  of  by  his  guard.  He  expressed  his  surprise,  and  imme- 
diately ordered  it  in ;  and  also  sent  for  one  Solomon  Colly,  former- 
ly a  sergeant  in  our  army,  and  one  of  the  unfortunate  company  of 
Nolan.  We  were  seated,  when  he  ordered  Colly  to  demand  my 
name,  to  which  I  replied ;  he  then  demanded  in  what  province  I 
was  born.  I  answered  in  English,  and  then  addressed  his  excel- 
lency in  French,  and  told  him  that  I  did  not  think  it  necessary  to 
enter  into  such  a  catechising;  that  if  he  would  be  at  the  pains 
of  reading  my  commission  from  the  United  States,  and  my  orders 
from  my  general,  it  would  be  all  that  I  presumed  would  be  neces- 
sary to  convince  his  excellency  that  I  came  with  no  hostile  inten- 
tions towards  the  Spanish  government;  on  the  contrary,  that  I 
had  express  instructions  to  guard  against  giving  them  offense 
or  alarm,  and  that  his  excellency  would  be  convinced  that  myself 
and  party  were  rather  to  be  considered  objects  on  which  the  so 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806       141 

much  celebrated  generosity  of  the  Spanish  nation  might  be  exer- 
cised, than  proper  subjects  to  occasion  the  opposite  sentiments. 

"He  then  requested  to  see  my  commission  and  orders,  which  I 
read  to  him  in  French;  on  which  he  got  up  and  gave  me  his 
hand  for  the  first  time,  and  said  he  was  happy  to  be  acquainted 
with  me  as  a  man  of  honor  and  a  gentleman,  that  I  could  retire 
this  evening  and  take  my  trunk  with  me ;  that  on  the  morrow  he 
would  make  further  arrangements." 

The  next  day,  after  examining  the  contents  of  Pike 's  trunk,  the 
governor  informed  him  that  he  must  go  with  his  men  to  Chi- 
huahua, in  the  then  province  of  Biscay,  to  appear  before  the 
commandant-general.  The  follo^ving  conversation  then  ensued, 
which  Pike  has  preserved  in  full  in  his  journal : 

"Pike.  If  we  go  to  Chihuahua,  w^e  must  be  considered  as 
prisoners  of  war. 

"Gov.     By  no  means. 

"Pike.  You  have  already  disarmed  my  men  without  my 
knowledge ;  are  their  arms  to  be  returned,  or  not? 

' '  Gov.     They  can  receive  them  at  any  moment. 

"Pike.  But,  sir,  I  cannot  consent  to  be  led  300  or  400  leagues 
out  of  my  route  without  its  being  by  force  of  arms. 

"Gov.  I  know  you  do  not  go  voluntarily,  but  I  will  give  you 
a  certificate  from  under  my  hand  of  my  having  obliged  you  to 
march. 

"Pike.     T  \^nll  address  yon  a  letter  on  the  subject. 

"Gov.  You  will  dine  with  me  to-day,  and  march  afterwards 
to  a  village  about  six  miles  distant,  escorted  by  Captain  Antony 
D  'Almansa,  with  a  detachment  of  dragoons,  who  will  accompany 
you  to  where  the  remainder  of  your  escort  is  now  waiting  for 
you,  under  the  command  of  the  officer  who  commanded  the  expe- 
dition to  the  Pawnees. ' ' 

After  the  dinner  —  which  Captain  Pike  characterizes  as 
"rather  splendid,"  having  a  variety  of  dishes,  and  wines  of  the 
southern  provinces  —  the  governor  drove  Pike,  D  'Almansa,  and  a 
Mr.  Bartholomew,  who  had  proved  a  special  friend  to  the 
Americans,  three  miles  on  the  road  to  the  south,  the  coach  being 
attended  by  a  guard  of  cavalry ;  and  on  parting  said  to  his  pris- 
oner-guest :    * '  Remember  Alencaster  in  peace  or  war. ' ' 

Accompanied  by  his  friend  Bartholomew  and  the  guard.  Pike 


142  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

continued  on  through  a  blinding  sand,  and  passed  the  night  at  the 
priest's  house,  at  what  apparently  was  the  present  village  of  La 
Bajada;  as  he  says  that  they  "came  to  a  precipice  which  he  de- 
scended, meeting  with  great  difficulty  from  the  obscurity  of  the 
night. ' '  Shortly  after  noon  of  the  next  day  they  arrived  at  the 
pueblo  of  Santo  Domingo,  which  they  describe  as  "a  large  vil- 
lage—  the  population  being  about  1,000  natives,  governed  by  its 
own  chief."  The  insignia  of  the  governor  appears  to  have  been 
nearly  the  same  then  as  at  present,  as  it  is  stated  that  he  was 
distinguished  by  "a  cane  with  a  silver  head  and  black  tassel." 
Pike  visited  the  old  church,  and  speaks  enthusiastically  of  its 
rich  paintings  and  the  image  of  the  saint,  ''as  large  as  life  — 
elegantly  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver. ' ' 

On  Friday,  March  6,  they  arrived  at  San  Felipe,  where  they 
crossed  the  Rio  Grande  on  a  bridge  of  eight  arches,  which  seems 
to  have  attracted  Pike's  attention  specially,  as  he  gives  a  full 
description  of  its  construction.  Here  they  stopped  at  the  house 
of  the  padre.  Father  Rubi,  whose  hospitality  and  extended  infor- 
mation made  the  stay  a  pleasant  one.  At  Albuquerque  they 
were  similarly  entertained  by  Father  Ambrosio  Guerra,  and  Pike 
seems  to  have  been  particularly  impressed  with  the  beauty  of  some 
of  the  orphan  girls,  whom  the  good  padre  had  adopted,  and  was 
bringing  up  in  his  household ;  and  enthusiastically  writes,  after 
describing  the  dinner,  ' '  and  to  crown  all,  we  were  ws  ited  on  by 
half  a  dozen  of  those  beautiful  girls,  who,  like  Hebe  at  the  feast 
of  the  gods,  converted  our  wine  to  nectar,  and  with  their  am- 
brosial breath  shed  incense  on  our  cups. ' ' 

A  short  distance  further  south  Pike  was  rejoiced  to  meet  Dr. 
Robinson,  who  had  left  the  party,  it  will  be  recollected,  while  they 
still  believed  thej^  were  on  the  Red  river,  to  find  his  way  to  Santa 
Fe.  He  had  received  much  the  same  treatment  as  Lieutenant 
Pike's  command,  and  was  being  conveyed  to  Chihuahua  by  Don 
Facundo  Melgares,  who  was  now  also  to  assume  command  of  the 
guard  that  was  conducting  Pike.  This  Melgares  was  the  same 
who  had  commanded  the  Spanish  Pawnee  expedition,  and  was  de- 
scribed by  Robinson  to  Pike  in  the  highest  terms  as  a  gentleman 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806       143 

and  soldier  of  gallantry  and  honor,  praise  in  which  Pike  himself 
heartily  joined  after  a  brief  acquaintance. 

After  passing  towns  which  the  lieutenant  calls  Tousac,  St. 
Fernandez,  Sabinez,  and  Xaxales,  the  expedition  reached  Sevil- 
leta,  spelled  by  Pike  ' '  Sibilleta, "  which  he  calls  the  neatest  and 
most  symmetrical  village  he  had  seen,  being  built  in  a  regular 
square,  with  an  unbroken  wall  on  the  outside,  all  the  doors  and 
windows  facing  the  square.  At  this  point,  at  that  time,  the  semi- 
annual caravan  for  the  south  was  formed,  leaving  in  the  month 
of  February  for  El  Paso,  and  returning  in  March ;  and  making  a 
similar  expedition  in  the  fall.  The  spring  caravan  which  Pike 
saw  consisted  of  about  300  men,  escorted  by  an  officer  and  35  or 
40  troops,  and  was  conducting  15,000  sheep,  which  had  been  col- 
lected from  various  parts  of  New  Mexico,  and  were  to  be  sold  or 
exchanged  for  merchandise. 

On  the  21st  of  March  the  whole  party  arrived  at  El  Paso,  and 
Pike,  with  the  officers,  stayed  at  the  house  of  Don  Francisco 
Garcia,  a  wealthy  merchant  and  planter,  possessing  20,000  sheep 
and  1,000  cows. 

On  April  2  they  reached  Chihuahua,  and  Pike  immediately  had 
an  audience  with  the  general  commanding,  Don  Nemecio  Salcedo, 
who  took  his  papers  for  examination,  and  also  requested  him  to 
write  a  brief  sketch  of  his  travels  and  adventures  on  this  expedi- 
tion, which  he  shortly  after  did. 

After  being  detained  for  some  time,  which  however  was  spent 
quite  pleasantly,  owing  to  the  hospitality  of  many  of  the  leading 
citizens.  Pike  and  Robinson  were  sent  by  a  route  nearly  directly 
eastward,  toward  Natchitoches,  which  was  the  nearest  United 
States  post.  On  June  7th  they  arrived  at  San  Antonio,  where 
they  were  very  hospitably  treated  by  Governor  Cordero,  of  Coa- 
huila  and  Texas,  and  Governor  Ilerrera,  of  the  kingdom  of  New 
Leon,  who  treated  them,  in  the  language  of  Pike,  ''like  their 
children." 

At  length,  on  the  1st  of  July,  1807  —  but  three  weeks  short  of  a 
year  from  the  time  of  his  departure  from  St.  Louis  —  after  cross- 
ing the  whole  of  what  is  now  the  state  of  Texas,  late  in  the  after- 


144  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

noon,  but  so  eager  to  arrive  that  they  left  their  jaded  horses  and 
pressed  forward  on  foot,  Pike  entered  the  town  of  Natchitoches 
with  Dr.  Robinson.  *' Language,"  says  he,  ** cannot  express  the 
gaiety  of  my  heart  when  I  once  more  beheld  the  standard  of  my 
country  waved  aloft.  'AH  hail,'  cried  I,  'the  ever  sacred  name 
of  country,  in  which  is  embraced  that  of  kindred,  friends,  and 
every  other  tie  which  is  dear  to  the  soul  of  man!'  " 

It  will  be  interesting  to  make  a  few  extracts  from  the  descrip- 
tion which  Captain  Pike  gave  of  New  Mexico  in  the  "Observa- 
tions" which  form  part  of  the  appendix  to  the  history  of  his 
expedition;  as  showing  the  condition  of  the  countiy  at  that 
period,  in  several  respects  in  which  time  has  wrought  changes,' 
and  in  other  instances  illustrating  the  characteristics  which  are 
still  distinguishing  marks  of  the  territory  and  its  people : 

Mines,  etc.  — ' '  There  are  no  mines  known  in  the  province, 
except  one  of  copper,  situated  in  a  mountain  on  the  west  side  of 
Rio  del  Norte,  in  latitude  34°  north.  It  is  worked,  and  produces 
twenty  thousand  mule  loads  of  copper  annually.  It  also  furnishes 
that  article  for  the  manufactories  of  nearly  all  the  internal  pro- 
vinces. It  contains  gold,  but  not  quite  sufficient  to  pay  for  its 
extraction ;  consequently  it  has  not  been  pursued. ' ' 

It  is  not  easy  to  fix  the  identity  of  the  copper  mine  referred  to, 
as  latitude  34°  is  just  below  Socorro,  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
latitude  given  is  incorrect,  and  that  the  mine  was  the  "Santa 
Rita,"  then,  being  actively  worked,  having  been  discovered  in 
1800.  This  extract  may  be  read  in  connection  with  one  soon  to 
b€  given  on  trade  and  commerce,  in  which  "wrought  copper  ves- 
sels" appear  among  the  exports. 

Minerals.  — ' '  There  is,  near  Santa  Fe,  in  some  of  the  moun- 
tains, a  stratum  of  talc,  which  is  so  large  and  flexible  as  to  render 
it  capable  of  being  subdivided  into  thin  flakes,  of  which  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  houses  in  Santa  Fe,  and  in  all  the  vil- 
lages to  the  north,  have  their  window-lights  made." 

These  mica  mines,  especially  at  Petaca,  Nambe,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mora  (where  one  of  the  villages  is  called  Talco),  are 
well  known  at  present.    As  late  as  the  time  of  the  American  occu- 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  — 1806       145 

pation,  in  1846,  we  are  told  that  no  house  in  Santa  Pe,  except  the 
palace,  had  windows  of  glass. 

Trape  and  Commerce.  — ' '  New  Mexico  carries  on  a  trade  di- 
rect with  Mexico  through  Biscay  (Chihuahaa),  also  with  Sonora 
and  Sinaloa;  it  sends  out  about  30,000  sheep  annually,  tobacco, 
dressed  deer  and  cabrie  skins,  some  fur,  buffalo-robes,  salt,  and 
wrought  copper  vessels  of  a  superior  quality.  It  receives  in  re- 
turn from  'Biscay  and  Mexico,  dry-goods,  confectionery,  arms, 
iron,  steel,  ammunition,  and  some  choice  European  wines  and 
liquors;  and  from  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  gold,  silver,  and  cheese. 
The  following  articles  sell  as  stated  (in  this  province),  which  will 
show  the  cheapness  of  provisions  and  the  extreme  dearness  of  im- 
ported goods : 

Flour  sells  per  hundred  at $  2.00 

Salt  per  mule-load 5.00 

Sheep  each  1.00 

Beeves  each 5.00 

Wine  del  Passo  per  barrel 15.00 

Horses  each 11.00 

Mules  each  30.00 

Superfine  cloths  per  yard 25.00 

Fine  cloths  per  yard 20.00 

Linen  per  yard 4.00 

and  all  other  dry-goods  in  proportion. 

"The  journey  from  Santa  Fe  to  Mexico  and  returning  to 
Santa  Fe  takes  five  months.  They  manufacture  rough  leather, 
segars,  a  vast  variety  and  quantity  of  potters'  ware,  cotton,  some 
coarse  woolen  cloths,  and  blankets  of  a  superior  quality.  All 
these  manufactures  are  carried  on  by  the  civilized  Indians,  as  the 
Spaniards  think  it  more  honorable  to  be  agriculturists  than  me- 
chanics.  The  Indians  likewise  far  exceed  their  conquerors  in  their 
genius  for,  and  execution  of,  all  mechanical  operations.  New 
Mexico  has  the  exclusive  right  of  cultivating  tobacco. ' ' 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  the 
evidences  of  which  are  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  rains 
of  the  oldest  pueblos,  and  which  is  still  carried  on  to  such  an 
extent  by  the  Pueblo  Indians,  was  never  intermitted  by  that  in- 
dustrious people.  The  blankets  were  probably  the  forerunners  of 
the  present  celebrated  productions  of  the  Navajos,  which  tribe  is 
mentioned  by  Pike  under  the  name  of  ''Nanahaws."    Then,  as 


146  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

now,  the  Apaches  were  the  most  troublesome  of  the  natives,  as 
the  ''Observations''  say,  ''The  Apaches  are  a  nation  of  Indians 
who  extend  from  the  Black  Mountains  in  New  Mexico  to  the 
frontiers  of  Cogquilla  (Coahuila),  keeping  the  frontiers  of  these 
provinces  in  a  continual  state  of  alarm,  and  making  it  necessary 
to  employ  nearly  2,000  dragoons  to  escort  the  caravans,  protect 
the  villages,  and  revenge  the  attacks  they  are  continually  mak- 
ing.'' 

Government  and  Laws.  —  "The  government  of  New  Mexico 
may  be  termed  military,  in  the  pure  sense  of  the  word;  for  al- 
though they  have  their  alcaldes,  or  inferior  officers,  their  judg- 
ments are  subject  to  a  reversion  by  the  military  commandants  of 
districts.  The  whole  male  population  are  subject  to  military 
duty,  without  pay  or  emolument,  and  are  obliged  to  find  their 
own  horses,  arms,  and  provisions.  The  only  thing  furnished  by 
the  government  is  ammunition,  and  it  is  extraordinary  wuth  what 
subordination  they  act  when  they  are  turned  out  to  do  military 
duty ;  a  strong  proof  of  which  was  exhibited  in  the  expedition  of 
Melgares  to  the  Pawnees.  His  command  consisted  of  100  dra- 
goons of  the  regular  service  and  500  drafts  from  the  province. ' ' 

In  the  following  paragraph  Captain  Pike  pays  a  warm  tribute 
to  the  bravery  of  the  New  Mexicans,  and  makes  a  richly  merited 
recognition  of  that  generosity  and  hospitality  for  which  they  are 
everywhere  noted,  and  which  the  lapse  of  a  century  has  not  les- 
sened, but  which  form  as  notable  a  characteristic  today  as  when 
the  captain  wrote  these  words  in  1807. 

Manners,  etc.  —  "There  is  nothing  peculiarly  characteristic 
in  this  province  that  will  not  be  embraced  in  my  general  observa- 
tions on  New  Spain,  except  that  being  frontier  and  cut  off,  as  it 
were,  from  the  more  inhabited  parts  of  the  kingdom,  together 
\\dth  their  continual  wars  with  some  of  the  savage  nations  who 
surround  them,  render  them  the  bravest  and  most  hardy  subjects 
in  New  Spain;  being  generally  armed,  they  know  the  use  of 
them.  Their  want  of  gold  and  silver  renders  them  laborious,  in 
order  that  the  productions  of  their  labor  may  be  the  means  of 
establishing  the  equilibrium  between  them  and  the  other  pro- 
vinces where  those  metals  abound.  Their  isolated  and  remote 
situation  also  causes  them  to  exhibit  in  a  superior  degree  the 
heaven  like  qualities  of  hospitality  and  kindness,  in  which  they 


EXPEDITION  OF  LIEUT.  PIKE  —  1806      147 

appear  to  endeavor  to  fulfill  the  injunction  of  the  scripture, 
which  enjoins  us  to  feed  the  hungry,  clothe  the  naked,  and  give 
comfort  to  the  oppressed  in  spirit ;  and  I  shall  always  take  plea- 
sure in  expressing  my  gratitude  for  their  noble  reception  of 
myself  and  the  men  under  my  command. ' ' 


CHAPTEE  XV 

Mexican  Government,  1821-46 

In  1821  the  revolutionary  sentiment  against  Spanish  authority, 
in  Mexico,  which  had  never  been  quenched  from  the  time  of  the 
first  efforts  for  freedom  under  Hidalgo  in  1810,  assumed  practical 
form  by  the  Plan  of  Iguala,  which  m^j  be  called  the  Mexican 
Declaration  of  Independence,  promulgated  on  February  24. 

The  revolutionists  became  so  powerful  that  on  August  24  a 
treaty  was  signed  at  Cordoba  by  the  viceroy,  Don  Juan  0  'Donoju, 
recognizing  the  independence  of  Mexico.  As  the  Spanish  com- 
mander of  the  city  of  Mexico  refused  to  deliver  up  that  city,  it 
was  captured  by  General  Iturbide  on  September  27,  and  Spanish 
authority  was  at  an  end  in  all  of  New  Spain. 

The  government  of  Spain  repudiated  the  action  of  0 'Donoju, 
but  this  had  no  practical  effect  as  the  new  government  held  un- 
disputed sway.  A  congress  convened  to  formulate  a  constitution, 
and  finally,  on  March  19, 1822,  to  the  great  disgust  of  its  republi- 
can members,  adopted  an  imperial  form  of  government  with  Gen- 
eral Iturbide  as  its  first  emperor  under  the  name  of  Augustin  I. 

The  reign  of  the  new  emperor  was  short.  The  republican 
leaders  headed  a  counter-revolution,  which  resulted  on  April  7, 
1823,  in  a  decree  of  the  congress  declaring  the  coronation  of 
Iturbide  illegal  and  void  and  banishing  him  from  the  soil  of 
Mexico. 

These  changes  in  the  government  of  New  Spain  necessarily 
affected  New  Mexico,  but  there  were  no  conflicts  nor  bloodshed 
there,  the  distant  and  almost  isolated  territory  simply  accepting 
the  new  conditions  as  they  were  imposed. 

There  was  a  burst  of  enthusiasm  in  Santa  Fe  over  the  achieve- 
ment of  Mexican  independence.    AVhen  the  news  arrived  on  the 


150  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

day  after  Christmas,  1821,  that  Iturbide  had  captured  the  city  of 
Mexico  there  was  great  excitement,  and  Governor  Melgares  made 
an  inspiring  address  to  a  great  meeting  in  the  Plaza.  It  was  de- 
termined to  have  a  grand  demonstration  in  honor  of  Mexican 
independence  on  January  6,  Dia  de  los  Reyes  (Epiphany),  and 
the  celebration  lasted  from  the  dawn  of  that  day,  ushered  in  by 
salutes  of  artillery,  till  the  dawn  of  the  next  when  the  ball  at 
the  palace  ended.  All  the  noted  characters  of  the  day  took  part 
in  the  ceremonies.  Juan  Bautista  Vigil,  destined  twenty-four 
years  later  to  receive  General  Kearny  and  officially  end  the 
Mexican  authority,  was  postmaster,  and  his  building  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Plaza  was  gorgeously  decorated.  The  alcalde,  Pedro 
Armendaris,  led  a  grand  march.  A  patriotic  drama  was  pre- 
sented, in  which  Santiago  Abreu  represented  Independence; 
Vicar  Juan  Tomas  Terrasas  personated  Religion;  and  Chaplain 
Francisco  Osio,  the  Union. 

Altogether,  the  new  independence,  though  coupled  with  an 
emperor,  was  received  with  loud  acclaim. 

Rulers 

Antonio  Viscarra  was  the  first  regular  executive  under  Mexi- 
can authority.  The  title  was  now  changed  from  governor  to  ' '  Po- 
litical Chief.''  Governor  Viscarra  succeeded  Melgares  on  July 
5,  1822,  and  was  also  acting  governor  in  1828. 

He  was  succeeded  in  June,  1823,  by  Francisco  Xavier  Chaves, 
a  prominent  native  New  Mexican,  who  acted  for  a  few  weeks  until 
the  regular  appointment  of 

Bartolome  Baca,  who  was  in  authority  during  half  of  1823, 
and  until  September  13,  1825,  when  he  was  succeeded  by — 

Antonio  Narbona,  who  held  the  office  until  May  20,  1827.  He 
was  a  Canadian. 

Manuel  Armijo  then  obtained  the  position,  holding  it  at  this 
time  but  about  a  year,  when — 

Jose  Antonio  Chavez  succeeded,  and  held  the  office  for  three 
years,  a  long  period  in  those  days  of  rapid  changes  and  short 
administrations. 

Santiago  Abreu  became  political  chief  in  1831,  and  continued 


MEXICAN  GOVERNMENT,  1821-46  151 

until  some  time  in  1832.  He  and  his  two  brothers,  Ramon  and 
Marcelino,  all  came  from  Mexico  some  time  before,  and  all  were 
killed  in  the  revolution  of  1837.  Governor  Abreu  was  chief  jus- 
tice down  to  the  time  of  that  revolution. 

Francisco  Sarracino.  —  Political  chief,  1833  to  May  14,  1835, 
except  in  October,  1834,  when  Juan  Rafael  Ortiz  was  acting  ex- 
ecutive. 

In  May,  1835,  Mariano  Chavez  became  acting  Jefe  Politico  for 
three  months,  until  the  arrival  from  Mexico,  in  July,  1835,  of  — 

Albino  Perez,  who  served  as  political  chief  until  the  new 
Mexican  constitution  went  into  effect  and  New  Mexico  was 
changed  from  a  territory  into  a  department,  and  its  executive 
from  a  political  chief  to  a  governor.  The  new  arrangement  went 
into  operation  in  May,  1837,  Perez  being  appointed  the  first  gov- 
ernor, and  holding  the  position  until  he  was  cruelly  murdered 
in  the  revolution  of  that  year.  During  the  insurrection,  and  while 
Jose  Gonzales  was  claiming  to  be  governor,  the  legitimate  au- 
thority was  held  by — 

Pedro  Munoz,  a  colonel  in  the  army,  as  acting  governor,  until 
the  executive  power  was  assumed  by — 

Manuel  Armijo,  first  as  commanding  general,  and  after  the 
execution  of  Gonzales  in  January,  1838,  as  governor.  He  w^as 
soon  after  regularly  appointed  to  the  latter  office,  and  held  it 
until  suspended  by  the  inspector  general.  For  a  brief  time  in 
1841— 

Antonio  SandovaIj  appears  as  acting  governor ;  and  during  the 
suspension  of  Armijo — 

Mariano  Martinez  de  Lejanza  was  governor  from  some  time 
in  1844  to  September  18, 1845,  and— 

Jose  Chavez  from  the  latter  date  to  December,  when  Armijo 
was  returned  to  the  executive  office,  and  again  assumed  its  duties. 

Manuel  Armijo  was  the  last  Mexican  governor,  holding  the 
position  until  the  American  occupation. 

Juan  Bautista  Vigil  y  Alarid  became  acting  governor  for  a 
short  time  after  Armijo 's  retreat,  and  as  such  delivered  the 
capital  to  General  Kearny,  August  18,  1846. 

All  through  this  period,  down  to  the  final  overthrow  of  the 


152  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Navajos  long  after  the  American  occupation,  there  existed  an  al- 
most constant  condition  of  warfare  with  that  powerful  tribe. 
They  made  frequent  incursions  into  the  settlements  —  much  as 
the  Comanches  did  in  the  preceding  century ;  and  in  turn  armed 
expeditions  were  made  into  their  country,  with  a  view  to  their 
punishment  and  the  destruction  of  their  villages  and  property 
The  military  reputation  of  Melgares  was  won  in  such  expeditions 
before  he  was  sent  to  negotiate  with  the  Pawnees  in  the  east 
They  served  as  a  school  of  military  experience.  Governor  Vigil 
then  a  militia  officer,  took  part  in  no  less  than  four  of  these  cam- 
paigns, in  1823,  1833,  1836,  and  1838.  Manuel  Chaves,  Jose 
Maria  Chavez,  and  Roman  A.  Baca  made  great  reputations  as 
leaders  in  the  almost  constant  Indian  wars. 

About  the  year  1830  the  Navajos  were  kept  in  very  good  order 
for  a  time  by  the  energy  of  Colonel  Yizcarra,  but  after  his  de- 
parture no  one  arose  capable  of  inspiring  them  with  fear.  The 
ordinary  custom  was  for  peace  to  be  made  in  the  spring,  which 
permitted  the  sowing  of  grain  to  be  done  without  danger ;  but  the 
fall  was  very  likely  to  see  a  renewal  of  hostilities.  An  expedition 
organized  in  1835,  in  which  most  of  the  leading  men  of  the  terri- 
tory enlisted  as  volunteers,  was  surprised  by  an  ambush  in  a  nar- 
row defile,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  some  loss.  The  Apaches 
also  made  periodical  raids  into  certain  parts  of  the  territory,  and 
by  attacks  on  frontier  settlements  prevented  to  a  great  extent  the 
spread  of  population. 

In  1824,  Durango,  Chihuahua,  and  New  Mexico  were  united 
in  constituting  a  state  of  the  Mexican  Union;  but  this  arrange- 
ment did  not  last  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

In  1828  the  Mexican  congress  passed  a  law  expelling  all  native- 
born  Spaniards  (called  Cachupines)  from  the  republic.  This  of 
course  affected  a  number  in  New  Mexico,  including  several  Fran- 
ciscan friars,  who  were  all  forced  to  leave,  with  the  exception  of 
two,  named  Albino  and  Castro,  who  were  permitted  to  remain  on 
account  of  their  advanced  age  —  and  the  payment  of  $500  each ! 
It  was  not  believed  that  any  large  portion  of  this  sum  reached  the 
official  treasury. 


MEXICAN  GOVERNMENT,  1821-46  153 

In  1833,  Bishop  Zubiria,  of  Durango,  made  a  visitation 
throughout  New  Mexico,  and  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm. 
Special  preparations  were  made  at  all  points  for  his  reception; 
the  roads  and  bridges  on  the  route  were  repaired  and  decorated, 
and  the  houses  decked  with  flags,  colored  cloths,  and  flowers,  in 
profusion.  He  made  quite  a  protracted  stay  in  Santa  Fe,  and 
visited  a  number  of  towns  in  the  territory.  A  year  before,  Padre 
Ortiz  (Juan  Felipe)  had  been  appointed  as  vicar-general  of  New 
Mexico.  Bishop  Zubiria  made  another  visitation  to  New  Mexico 
in  1845,  and  again  in  1850. 

In  1835  the  first  newspaper  enterprise  was  attempted  —  Padre 
Martinez,  of  Taos,  issuing  a  paper,  of  the  size  of  foolscap,  en- 
titled El  Crepusculo  (meaning  The  Dawn),  weekly  for  about  a 
month,  when  its  particular  mission  being  accomplished,  and  the 
number  of  its  subscribers  (about  fifty)  not  justifying  a  continu- 
ance, it  was  abandoned. 

In  1837  occurred  the  change  in  the  general  system  of  govern- 
ment throughout  the  republic,  which  metamorphosed  New  Mexico 
from  a  territory  into  a  department,  and  by  its  augmented  taxa- 
tion and  other  unpopular  features  led  to  an  insurrection  of  large 
importance,  and  at  the  time,  of  very  doubtful  result.  This  was 
the  first  revolution,  of  any  real  moment,  in  a  century  and  a  half ; 
for  which  reason  it  has  appeared  best  to  treat  it  briefly  in  a 
separate  chapter.     (See  Chapter  XVI.) 

Through  many  years,  since  the  first  passage  across  the  plains 
in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  the  traffic  with  the  United  States 
had  been  steadily  increasing,  until  it  had  grown  to  very  large 
proportions,  and  the  goods  thus  brought  to  Santa  Fe  were  dis- 
tributed over  a  large  part  of  northern  Mexico.  The  importance 
of  this  business  and  the  general  interest  attached  to  the  history 
of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  has  caused  that  subject  also  to  have  a 
separate  chapter  devoted  to  it.     (See  Chapter  XVII.) 

Pioneers 

This  intercourse  between  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Rio  Grande,  naturally  brought  into  New  Mexico  merchants 


154  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  traders  from  the  east,  and  they,  together  with  trappers  and 
hunters  who  gradually  accumulated  a  competence  and  settled 
down  near  the  scenes  of  their  active  life,  constituted  a  population 
now  generally  known  as  the  ''Pioneers,"  or  the  "Old  Timers.'* 
Their  history  should  be  separately  written,  and  when  their  ad- 
ventures and  exploits  are  faithfully  recorded,  will  be  as  inter- 
esting as  the  most  fascinating  romance.  Many  of  the  first  of 
them  ot  settle  on  the  western  border  of  the  plains  were  of  the 
parentage  known  as  "St.  Louis  French;"  and  hence  come  the 
French  names  which  exist  throughout  the  north  of  the  territory, 
whose  existence  would  otherwise  be  a  mystery. 

Among  the  first  thus  to  establish  a  business  in  New  Mexico 
was  Antonio  Roubidoux,  who  settled  at  Taos  in  1822.  Charles 
Beaubien  came  to  the  same  town  in  1827,  and  a  year  later  married 
the  sister  of  Don  Pedro  Valdez.  He  was  one  of  the  grantees  of 
the  enormous  ' '  Beaubien  and  Miranda  Grant, ' '  to  which  his  son- 
in-law  gave  the  name  of  the  "Maxwell  Grant."  His  daughters 
married  respectively  Lucien  B.  ]\Iaxwell,  Jesus  G.  Abreu,  Joseph 
Clouthier,  and  Frederick  Miiller.  Colonel  Ceran  St.  Vrain,  per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  of  southwestern  pioneers,  lived  for  many 
years  at  Taos,  and  subsequently  at  Mora,  where  he  owned  a  large 
mill,  and  where  his  grave  now  is.  The  Bents  built  "Bent's 
Fort"  in  1829,  and  in  1832  Bent  and  St.  Vrain  commenced  busi- 
ness at  Taos.  There  Charles  Bent  married,  and  lived  until  his 
appointment  as  governor,  and  violent  death  in  1847.  Kit  Carson 
first  came  from  Missouri  to  Santa  Fe  in  1826 ;  afterwards  going 
to  Taos,  where  he  studied  Spanish  with  Kinkead,  and  through 
all  the  travels  and  vicissitudes  of  his  after  life,  retained  that  as 
his  home.  Maxwell,  on  his  "Home  Ranch"  on  the  Cimarron, 
lived  like  a  feudal  chief,  dispensing  a  lavish  hospitality,  and 
literally  "lord  of  all  he  surveyed."  He  emploj^ed  500  men,  had 
1,000  horses,  10,000  cattle,  and  40,000  sheep ;  and  after  the  hard- 
ships of  early  frontier  life,  enjoyed  leisure  and  profusion  in  his 
later  days.  The  oldest  living  "American"  in  Santa  Fe  for  many 
years  was  James  Conklin,  who  came  in  1825,  and  died  in  June, 
1883.  Samuel  B.  Watrous,  the  father  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
arrived  in  1835,  and  for  a  considerable  time  lived  at  the  Placers. 


MEXICAN  GOVERNMENT,  182146  155 

James  Bonney,  whose  hospitality  both  Emory  and  Abert  record, 
was  the  original  settler  at  La  «Iunta,  in  1842,  his  house  being  the 
first  one  seen  in  1846  for  a  distance  of  775  miles  in  coming  from 
the  east.  Peter  Joseph,  a  native  of  the  Azores,  came  to  Taos  in 
1844,  and  established  himself  in  business. 

It  is  said  that  the  very  first  foreigner  to  settle  in  New  Mexico 
was  a  Frenchman,  named  Jean  d'Alay,  who  came  to  Taos  in 
1743 ;  and  that  the  well-known  Alarid  family  is  descended  from 
him. 

Among  valuable  documents  recently  acquired  by  the  Histori- 
cal Society  is  an  official  list  of  the  foreigners  residing  in  Taos 
and  Mora  just  before  the  American  occupation,  dated  September 
20,  1845.  It  is  interesting,  not  only  for  the  information  thus 
afforded,  but  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  spelling  of  a  num- 
ber of  the  English  names.    It  reads  as  follows : 

Taos 

Luis  Lee  Tomas  Ortibi 

Beaubien  Antonio  Ledoux 

Luciano  Manuel  Pascual  Rivera 

Abran  Lodis  Juan  Bta.  Ortibi 

Alarid  Blanco  Francisco  Lafore 

Manuel  Lefebre  Simon  Foler 

Jose  Bielin  Yorga  Lon 

Antonio  Dillette  Jose  Manuel  Grejan 

Antonio  Brachel  Juan  Bautista  Laerne 

Carlos  Foun  Jorge  Bui 

Mora 

Antonio  Ledux  Luis  Carbono 

Juan  Bautista  Brichal  Juan  Bautista  Yara 

Santiago  Bone 


Texan  Santa  Ft  Expedition 

In  the  year  1841  great  excitement  was  produced  by  reports  of 
the  coming  of  an  invading  army  from  Texas,  for  the  purpose  of 


156  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

conquering  the  territory.  George  W.  Kendall,  the  editor  of  the 
New  Orleans  Picayune,  who  accompanied  this  expedition  simply 
as  a  traveller,  has  left  a  very  graphic  account  of  its  history  in 
his  Santa  Fe  Expedition,  published  in  1844.  According  to  his 
statement,  it  had  no  intention  of  making  war;  but  simply  to  en- 
deavor to  open  a  mercantile  trade.  The  Mexican  authorities, 
however,  naturally  regarded  it  as  a  direct  invasion  of  their  terri- 
tory; and  terrible  stories  were  circulated  as  to  the  ferocity  of 
the  Texans,  who,  it  was  said,  would  bum,  slay,  and  destroy 
wherever  they  went. 

The  expedition  set  out  from  Austin  on  the  18th  of  June,  1841, 
under  command  of  General  McLeod ;  and  consisted  of  270  mount- 
ed volunteers,  divided  into  six  companies,  of  which  one  was  of 
artillery  and  provided  with  a  brass  six-pounder ;  and  about  fifty 
others,  including  commissioners,  merchants,  tourists,  and  ser- 
vants. Their  march  was  a  very  dangerous  and  arduous  one,  as  it 
passed  through  a  country  entirely  untravelled.  When  a  long 
distance  out  on  the  plains,  Lieutenant  Hull  and  four  men  were 
killed  by  the  Caygua  Indians ;  and  soon,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty in  finding  water,  it  was  determined  to  divide  the  party. 
Captain  Sutton,  with  eighty-seven  soldiers  and  twelve  civilians, 
being  sent  in  advance  on  the  best  horses  to  find  the  nearest 
settlements  and  send  word  back  to  the  remainder.  They  took 
rations  for  five  days,  but  owing  to  their  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
country,  it  was  thirteen  before  they  met  any  human  beings,  when 
they  fell  in  with  a  party  of  Mexicans  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pres- 
ent Fort  Bascom.  From  here  two  of  the  party,  Captain  Lewis 
and  Mr.  Van  Ness,  who  spoke  Spanish,  were  sent  ahead  to  confer 
with  the  authorities,  and  two  merchants  with  Mr.  Kendall  ac- 
companied them. 

The  following  morning  they  proceeded  through  La  Cuesta  to 
San  Miguel,  and  on  the  way  were  met  by  Damacio  Salazar,  with 
100  roughly  dressed  but  well  mounted  soldiers.  Having  sur- 
rounded the  party  with  his  men,  Salazar  said  that  he  must  de- 
mand their  arms.  These  were  given  up,  and  soon  after  Salazar 
said  that  his  instructions  were  to  take  all  papers  and  similar 
articles.     They  were  shocked  a  little  later  to  see  twelve  men 


MEXICAN  GOVERNMENT,  1821-46  157 

drawn  up  before  them  with  the  evident  intent  of  shooting  them 
then  and  there;  and  this  would  have  been  accomplished  but  for 
the  intervention  of  Don  Gregorio  Vigil,  who  stopped  the  bloody 
deed.  The  prisoners  —  for  such  they  now  were  —  were  then 
marched  through  La  Cuesta  and  Puertocito  to  San  Miguel,  where 
they  were  confined  in  a  room;  the  w^omen  all  along  the  route 
showing  a  kindness  and  sympathj^  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
unnecessary  cruelty  of  their  captors.  The  next  day  on  the  road 
to  Santa  Fe,  they  met  Governor  Armijo,  who  directed  them  to  be 
retaken  to  San  Miguel.  Here,  from  their  little  window,  they  saw 
two  of  their  late  companions  shot  for  having  attempted  to  escape 
after  being  taken. 

On  the  17th  of  October  the  whole  Texan  expedition  marched 
out  of  San  Miguel,  on  the  way  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  under 
a  strong  guard  commanded  by  Salazar.  The  story  of  their 
sufferings  and  privations,  of  the  numberless  cruelties  and  perse- 
cutions inflicted  by  Salazar ;  of  the  great  contrast  in  their  treat- 
ment when  they  were  transferred  at  El  Paso  to  the  care  of  Gen- 
eral J.  M.  Elias  Gonzales,  who  put  Salazar  under  arrest;  of  the 
kindness  and  hospitality  of  this  General  "Elias"  and  Padre 
Ortiz,  and  of  their  long  imprisonment  in  Mexico  —  is  graphically 
told  by  Mr.  Kendall,  but  cannot  have  further  space  here. 


In  1844  Governor  Martinez  issued  a  proclamation  which  is 
interesting  as  containing  the  last  arrangement  of  civil  divisions 
under  the  Mexican  rule,  and  also  as  giving  the  estimated  popula- 
tions.   The  districts  are  as  follows : 

Central  District  —  Counties  of  Santa  Fe,  Santa  Ana,  and  San 
Miguel  del  Bado,  with  populations  of  12,500,  10,500,  and  18,800. 

North  District  —  Counties  of  Rio  Arriba  and  Taos,  with,  popu- 
lations of  15,000  and  14,200. 

Southeast  District  —  Counties  of  Valencia  and  Bernalillo. 
Populations  20,000  and  8,204. 

This  gives  the  total  population  of  the  territory  as  99,204.  The 
proclamation  is  dated  June  17,  1844. 

Governor  Martinez  was  a  special  friend  of  education.     He 


158  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

sent  a  number  of  the  most  promising  young  men  in  the  territory 
to  Durango  and  the  city  of  Mexico  to  receive  military  educations ; 
and  established  additional  government  schools  in  Santa  Fe. 

Mariano  Martinez  was  the  only  governor  except  Perez  sent 
direct  from  Mexico  to  rule  this  remote  northern  department.  He 
was  a  distinguished  military  man,  of  fine  appearance  and  many 
progressive  ideas.  It  was  he  who  planted  the  first  trees  in  the 
Plaza  of  Santa  Fe,  which  had  before  been  a  sandy  waste.  The 
large  cottonwoods,  still  standing,  were  placed  there  by  his  orders. 
He  also  made  a  park  in  front  of  the  Rosario  chapel,  and  an  ave- 
nue of  trees  leading  to  it.  For  lack  of  care,  all  of  those  trees 
perished.  Governor  Martinez  is  best  remembered  on  account  of 
the  killing  of  the  Ute  chief,  Panasiyave,  with  a  blow  from  his 
chair,  in  the  reception  room  of  the  palace,  when  he  was  attacked 
by  six  chiefs  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  presents  given  to 
them.  This  was  on  September  7, 1 844,  and  the  next  day  the  gov- 
ernor issued  a  four-page  statement  of  the  case,  giving  all  the  par- 
ticulars, in  order  that  the  people  should  understand  the  provo- 
cation that  led  to  this  unfortunate  affair. 

During  the  Mexican  regime  New  Mexico  was  from  time  to  time 
represented  in  the  Mexican  congress.  Among  the  most  distin- 
guished representatives  were  Antonio  Jose  Martinez,  of  Taos, 
Juan  Felipe  Ortiz,  of  Santa  Fe,  and  Diego  Archuleta,  of  Rio 
Arriba. 

This  completes  the  summary  of  the  leading  events  prior  to  the 
American  occupation  in  1846,  but,  before  proceeding  to  that,  we 
will  devote  a  chapter  to  a  list  of  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  gover- 
nors, so  far  as  they  can  be  ascertained.  The  burning  of  the  re- 
cords in  the  Plaza  of  Santa  Fe  in  1680  makes  it  impossible  to  be 
entirely  accurate  as  to  those  holding  office  before  that  day. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

The  Insurrection  of  1S37 

For  the  commencement  of  the  causes  which  led  to  this  outbreak, 
we  must  go  back  two  years,  to  the  time  when  Albino  Perez,  a 
colonel  of  the  Mexican  army,  was  appointed  political  chief  by 
President  Santa  Ana,  in  1835.  Ever  since  the  independence  of 
Mexico  the  people  of  the  territory  had  been  governed  by  native 
New  Mexicans,  or  by  those  who  had  become  identified  with  their 
interests.  Members  of  well-known  families,  as  Baca,  Chaves, 
Armijo,  Sarracino,  and  Abreu  had  been  among  their  recent 
rulers,  and  the  last  Spanish  governor,  ^Telgares,  was  one  of  whose 
brilliant  record  they  were  all  proud ;  but  Governor  Perez  was  an 
entire  stranger,  sent  from  Mexico ;  and  even  if  he  had  been  abso- 
lutely perfect,  his  appointment  would  have  occasioned  discon- 
tent. The  feeling  was  increased  during  the  next  year  by  events 
connected  with  the  trial  of  the  disbursing  officers  of  the  territory, 
who  were  charged  with  peculation ;  and  the  highest  pitch  of  ex- 
citement was  reached  when  in  April,  1837,  the  new  Mexican  con- 
stitution went  into  effect,  which  changed  the  territory  into  a 
department,  centralized  power  in  many  respects,  and  imposed 
taxes  to  which  the  people  had  never  before  been  subject.  The 
opponents  of  the  government  exaggerated  the  bad  features  of 
the  new  system  so  as  to  render  them  still  more  obnoxious,  until 
the  people,  especially  in  the  north,  were  ready  to  break  into  re- 
volt at  the  first  signal.  An  occasion  soon  presented  itself  in  the  ar- 
rest and  imprisonment  of  a  local  judicial  officer  on  what  the  peo- 
ple considered  a  false  charge ;  a  large  assemblage  hurriedly  gath- 
ered, released  him  by  force,  and  raised  the  standard  of  revolution. 
This  was  on  the  first  of  August,  1837.  Santa  Cruz  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  movement,  and  within  two  days  a  large  num- 


160  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ber  of  men  dissatisfied  with  the  government  had  collected  there, 
embracing  many  Mexicans  from  the  northern  counties,  especially 
from  the  vicinity  of  Chimayo,  and  the  majority  of  the  Pueblo 
Indians  from  the  adjacent  villages,  except  San  Juan.  On  August 
3d  they  issued  the  following  "Plan,"  which  was  published  and 
circulated : 

"Viva!  God  and  the  Nation!  and  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ! 
For  the  principal  points  which  we  defend  are  the  following : 

' '  1st.  To  be  with  God  and  the  Nation,  and  the  faith  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

' '  2d.  To  defend  our  country  until  we  spill  every  drop  of  our 
blood  in  order  to  obtain  the  victory  we  have  in  view. 

"3d.     Not  to  admit  the  departmental  'plan.' 

"4th.    Not  to  admit  any  tax. 

"5th.  Not  to  admit  the  disorder  desired  by  those  who  are  at- 
tempting to  procure  it.    God  and  the  Nation ! 

"Encampment,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada,  August  3d,  1837." 

As  soon  as  Governor  Perez  received  news  of  this  revolt,  he 
assembled  what  troops  he  had  at  command,  and  called  on  the 
militia  to  report  for  duty;  but  to  this  call  received  a  very  luke- 
warm response.  The  Indians  of  San  Juan  and  Santo  Domingo, 
however,  remained  apparently  true,  and  accompanied  by  the 
warriors  from  those  pueblos  and  his  own  soldiers,  he  marched  to 
put  down  the  rebels.  These  he  met  on  the  second  day,  near  San 
Yldefonso,  but  upon  approaching  them,  nearly  all  of  the  gover- 
nor 's  army  deserted  and  fraternized  with  their  opponents ;  leav- 
ing so  few  faithful  to  his  standard  that  Perez  was  forced  to  move 
with  all  speed  toward  Santa  Fe.  Lieutenant  Miguel  Sena,  Ser- 
geant Sais,  and  Loreto  "Romero,  who  were  among  those  who  re- 
mained loyal,  were  killed  by  the  revolutionists  near  the  Puerto- 
eito,  between  Santa  Cruz  and  Pojuaque.  Finding  that  there  was 
no  security  at  the  palace,  the  governor  left  the  city  at  10  o  'clock 
at  night  to  escape  to  the  south,  but  the  roads  were  all  blocked  by 
squads  of  revolutionists,  and  his  party  was  soon  forced  to  retreat 
and  again  retire  towards  the  capital.  Traveling  on  foot,  the  bet- 
ter to  conceal  his  identity.  Governor  Perez  reached  the  house  of 
Salvador  Martinez,  about  a  league  southwest  of  Santa  Fe,  and 


THE  INSUEEECTION  OF  1837  161 

took  refuge  there,  but  was  soon  found  by  Indians  from  Santo 
Domingo,  who  were  following  his  track,  and  almost  instantly 
killed.  The  exact  place  of  his  assassination  is  now  marked  by  a 
stone  monument,  erected  in  1901  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution.  Before  his  pulse  had  ceased  to  beat,  they  cut 
off  his  head  —  compelling  Santiago  Prada,  one  of  his  own  soldiers, 
to  perform  the  deed  —  and  carried  it  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
insurgents,  which  were  near  the  Rosario  church,  in  the  western 
outskirts  of  Santa  Fe.  On  the  same  day  Jesus  Maria  Alarid, 
secretary  of  state,  and  Santiago  Abreu,  formerly  governor,  were 
taken  together  near  the  Mesita  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  killed; 
the  latter  with  special  cruelty.  Ramon  Abreu  and  Marcelino 
Abreu,  brothers  of  the  ex-governor,  and  Lieutenant  Madrigal  and 
another,  were  overtaken  on  the  same  road,  at  a  place  called  ' '  Las 
Palacias,"  between  Cieneguilla  and  Agua  Fria,  and  killed.  Colo- 
nel Aponte  was  wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  killed. 

All  this  was  on  the  9th  of  August;  and  the  next  day  the  in- 
surgents entered  the  city  without  opposition,  under  command  of 
General '  *  Chopon, ' '  of  Taos,  and  the  Montoya  brothers  took  pos- 
session of  the  palace,  and  offered  up  thanks  in  the  parish  church 
for  their  victory.  Jose  Gonzales,  of  Taos,  was  elected  governor, 
and  duly  installed  in  office  in  the  palace ;  and  the  revolutionary 
army,  having  now  accomplished  its  object,  immediately  disband- 
ed —  its  members  returning  to  their  homes. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  movement  had  the  secret  sup- 
port and  approval  of  many  of  the  leading  men  of  the  northern 
counties,  including  Santa  Fe  itself;  and  on  August  27  and  28  a 
general  assembly  composed  of  the  alcaldes  and  other  influential 
citizens  in  the  northern  half  of  the  territory,  met  at  Santa  Fe  at 
the  palace  and  ratified  the  acts  of  the  revolutionists.  Among 
those  participating  was  Manuel  Armijo,  but  almost  immediately 
thereafter  he  left  for  the  Rio  Abajo  or  lower  country,  where  he 
organized  a  counter-revolution  and  prepared  to  march  to  Santa 
Fe  with  a  considerable  force. 

The  sentiment  against  the  "Canton,"  as  the  revolutionists 
called  their  organization,  was  formulated  in  what  is  known  as  the 


162  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

''Pronunciamiento  de  Tome/ '  promulgated  on  September  8, 1837, 
in  the  name  of  the  "Citizens,  Lovers  of  their  Country,  in  Favor 
of  the  Constitution  and  the  Laws."  This  declared  that  until 
other  orders  from  the  supreme  government  of  Mexico  they  would 
recognize  the  prefect  of  the  district  of  Albuquerque  (southern 
district)  as  the  legal  authority  in  New  Mexico ;  that  an  army  be 
raised  to  be  commanded  by  Manuel  Armijo,  with  Mariano  Chaves 
as  second  in  command,  and  with  Vicente  Sanchez  Yergara  as 
secretary.  This  pronunciamiento  was  signed  by  Manuel  Armijo^ 
Francisco  Ignacio  Madariaga  (the  parish  priest  of  Tome),  Jose 
Salazar,  Pablo  Salazar,  Jose  Francisco  Montoya,  and  Miguel  de 
Olona.  It  was  rapidlj^  distributed  throughout  the  country  and 
met  with  an  immediate  response  in  all  the  Rio  Abajo  region. 

When  Gonzales  heard  that  Armijo  was  marching  up  from  Al- 
buquerque, he  withdrew  from  the  capital  to  Santa  Cruz,  which 
was  the  center  of  the  revolutionary  feeling.  Armijo  thereupon 
entered  Santa  Fe,  assumed  charge  of  the  government  and  pro- 
claimed himself  commandant-general  of  the  province.  He  im- 
mediately sent  dispatches  to  the  central  government  in  Mexico, 
stating  that  he  had  overthrown  the  rebellion ;  and  as  a  result  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  Mexico  —  a  position  which  he  held 
for  the  greater  part  of  nine  years.  At  the  same  time  the  na- 
tional authorities  dispatched  troops  from  Zacatecas  and  Chi- 
huahua to  assist  in  the  final  suppression  of  the  insurrection. 
With  these  and  his  own  soldiers,  Armijo  made  a  rapid  march  to 
Santa  Cruz,  in  January,  1838,  and  succeeded  in  defeating  the  en- 
tire rebel  army  and  capturing  all  the  leaders.  Immediate  punish- 
ment followied,  no  mercy  being  shown.  On  January  24  the  two 
brothers  Montoya  (Desiderio  and  Antonio  Abad),  Juan  Jose  Es- 
quibel,  and  Juan  Vigil  were  executed  near  the  old  Spanish  fort 
or  Garita  on  the  little  hill  in  the  northern  part  of  Santa  Fe. 
Gonzales  was  killed  by  the  immediate  command  of  Armijo  him- 
self directly  after  the  victory  at  La  Canada.  The  story  is  that 
Gonzales,  on  being  captured,  was  brought  before  Armijo,  who  was 
then  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  and  on  seeing  the  general,  Gon- 
zalez came  forward  with  hand  extended,  saying  ''How  do  you  do. 


THE  INSUERECTTON  OF  1837  163 

Companero  ? "  as  was  proper  between  two  of  equal  rank  as  gover- 
nors. Armijo  replied,  '^liow  do  you  do,  Companero?  Confess 
yourself,  Companero."  Then  turning  to  his  soldiers,  added, 
"Now  shoot  my  compafiero!"  —  which  command  was  immediate- 
ly executed.    This  effectually  ended  the  revolution  of  1837. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Santa  Fe  Trail 

Though  Mexico  was  settled  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
the  Spaniards  soon  after  penetrated  over  1,500  miles  to  the  north 
and  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  far  as  northern  New- 
Mexico,  and  another  colonization  from  England  and  France  had 
populated  the  eastern  shores  of  what  is  now  the  United  States 
and  Canada  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  had  extended 
westward  to  the  Mississippi  Valley,  yet  it  was  left  for  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  see  any  communication  whatever  between  these 
two  populations,  situated  on  the  same  continent,  yet  separated 
by  mountains  and  by  the  great  expanse  of  desert  plain. 

The  French  and  Spaniards  had  successively  been  the  rulers  of 
the  vast  territory  extending  westward  from  the  jMississippi,  then 
all  included  under  the  name  of  Louisiana;  yet  the  people  of 
neither  of  those  nationalities  had  displayed  the  enterprise  requi- 
site to  cross  the  intervening  space  between  themselves  and  New 
Mexico,  and  brave  the  hostility  of  the  tribes  which  roamed  over 
the  plains  between. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  by  the  United 
States  that  such  a  journey  was  accomplished,  or  even  attempted. 
In  1803  President  Jefferson  completed  the  negotiation  for  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana  from  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  and  the  sov- 
ereignty of  that  vast  domain  was  transferred  f ronx  the  French  to 
the  Americans.  The  chief  city  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  in  the 
newly  acquired  territory,  was  St.  Louis ;  the  principal  settlement 
on  the  easterly  side  of  the  river,  within  the  old  boundaries  of  the 
United  States,  was  Kaskaskia.  Each  of  these  places  claims  the 
credit  of  sending  the  first  adventurers  across  the  plains  to  meet 


THE  SANTA  F£j  TRAIL  165 

the  tide  of  Spanish  colonization  coming  from  the  south,  at  Santa 
Fe ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  has  the  prior  right. 

In  1804,  Mr,  Morrison,  an  enterprising  merchant  of  Kaskaskia, 
sent  a  man  called  Baptiste  La  Lande,  a  French  Creole  from  Louis- 
iana, to  the  head- waters  of  the  Missouri  and  Platte,  and  furnished 
him  with  goods  with  which  to  trade  with  the  Indians.  With  little 
idea  of  distance,  the  astute  Kaskaskia  merchant  directed  La 
Lande,  if  it  should  be  possible,  to  press  on  to  Santa  Fe.  La  Lande 
was  evidently  a  man  of  energy,  though  we  cannot  admire  some  of 
his  other  qualities ;  and  succeeded  finally  in  sending  in  some  In- 
dians to  the  Spanish  borders,  w^ho  gave  a  report  of  the  arrival 
of  this  stranger  from  the  far  and  almost  unknown  east.  A  party 
of  Mexicans  on  horseback  conveyed  him  and  his  goods  into  the 
northern  settlements  near  Taos,  from  where  he  traveled  on  to 
Santa  Fe,  selling  his  merchandise  as  he  went.  Pleased  with  the 
country,  in  which  he  obtained  far  higher  prices  than  he  had 
dreamed  of  elsewhere,  and  where  the  hospitable  people  offered 
him  land  and  other  inducements  if  he  would  stay ;  and  captivated 
by  some  of  the  bright-eyed  brunettes  of  the  city,  he  concluded  to 
return  no  more,  not  even  to  account  to  Mr.  Morrison  for  his 
goods ;  and  so,  with  the  proceeds  thus  simply  obtained,  he  settled 
down  in  the  capital  of  the  province. 

Two  years  before  La  Lande  left  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi, 
James  Pursley,  or  Purcell,  an  enterprising  Kentuckian,  who  was 
by  turns  a  hunter,  trapper,  and  trader,  and  a  fair  type  of  the 
pioneers  of  those  early  days,  left  St.  Louis  on  a  hunting  expedi- 
tion to  the  head-waters  of  the  Osage  river,  in  what  is  now  south- 
western Missouri,  with  two  companions.  His  varied  adventures 
during  three  years  of  wanderings,  which  covered  most  of  the 
country  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  can- 
not be  narrated  here.  After  much  travel  and  many  adventures, 
he  finally  reached  the  northern  border  of  New  ]\Iexico,  in  com- 
pany with  a  great  party  of  Indians,  fully  2,000  in  number. 
Wishing  to  ascertain  whether  the  Spaniards  would  receive  them 
in  a  friendly  way  and  enter  into  trade,  the  Indians  sent  Pursley, 
with  a  small  escort,  to  Santa  Fe  as  a  kind  of  ambassador.     The 


166  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

governor  (Alencaster)  acceded  to  the  request,  and  shortly  after- 
ward the  whole  band  followed  its  advance  guard,  and  after  some 
time  spent  in  trading,  set  out  on  its  return  to  the  north. 

But  Pursley,  tired  of  life  among  the  savages,  concluded  to  re- 
main in  Santa  Fe.  He  arrived  there  in  June,  1805  —  over  three 
years  after  his  departure  from  St.  Louis  —  and  settled  down  to 
the  pursuit  of  his  trade  as  a  carpenter;  at  which,  we  are  told, 
*'he  made  a  great  deal  of  money,  except  when  working  for  the 
officers,  who  paid  him  little  or  nothing. ' '  Here  Pike  found  him 
in  1807,  and  had  the  celebrated  conversation  which  has  given  to 
Pursley  the  fame  of  being  the  first  discoverer  of  the  gold  of  Colo- 
rado—  more  than  half  a  century  before  the  discovery  which 
brought  so  many  thousands  to  Pike's  Peak  and  the  canons  and 
mountains  of  the  centennial  state.  ' '  He  assured  me, ' '  says  Pike, 
*  *  that  he  had  found  gold  on  the  head  of  La  Platte,  and  had  car- 
ried some  of  the  virgin  mineral  in  his  shot-pouch  for  months ;  but 
that  being  in  doubt  whether  he  should  ever  again  behold  the  civi- 
lized world,  he  threw  the  sample  away. ' ' 

These  two  adventurous  traders  may  be  called  the  Fathers  of  the 
Santa  Fe  Trail,  although  the  route  which  they  traveled  was  far 
from  direct,  and  their  final  arrival  in  New  Mexico  more  the  result 
of  chance  than  of  any  calculation.  The  visit  of  Lieutenant  Pike 
and  his  unfortunate  party  to  Santa  Fe  in  1807  was  (rather  in- 
voluntary than  otherwise,  yet  from  it  flowed  important  results; 
for  the  descriptions  which  he  published  of  his  travels  on  his 
return  created  much  interest  throughout  the  west,  and  many  of 
the  adventurous  sons  of  the  border  yearned  to  follow  the  path 
which  led  to  the  city  whose  very  isolation  gave  it  an  air  of  ro- 
mance. 

The  first  real  expedition  was  undertaken  in  1812  by  a  company 
of  about  a  dozen  enterprising  men  of  St.  Louis,  who  fitted  out  a 
party  under  command  of  Robert  McKnight,  which  followed 
nearly  the  route  described  by  Pike.  They  arrived  after  various 
hardships,  in  safety,  at  Santa  Fe,  but  only  to  encounter  unex- 
pected troubles.  Unfortunately,  their  appearance  at  the  capital 
was  exactly  at  the  wrong  time.  The  attempted  revolution  under 
Hidalgo  had  just  been  put  down,  and  every  American  adven- 


THE  SANTA  F^  TRAIL  167 

turer  was  looked  upon  with  suspicion.  McKni^ht  and  his  party 
found  themselves  arrested  as  spies,  their  merchandise  seized  and 
confiscated ;  and  they  were  themselves  soon  sent  to  follow  Pike  to 
Chihuahua,  in  the  prison  of  which  city  they  languished  in  rigorous 
confinement  until  the  success  of  the  republican  movement  under 
Iturbide  brought  their  release. 

In  1815,  Auguste  P.  Chouteau  and  Julius  DeMunn,  from  St. 
Louis,  went  to  the  headquarters  of  the  Arkansas  to  trade  with  the 
Indians  and  the  next  year  penetrated  southward  to  Taos  and 
Santa  Fe,  where  they  were  well  received  by  Governor  Maynez. 
But  shortly  afterwards  Pedro  Maria  de  Allande  became  governor, 
and  a  change  of  policy  took  place ;  and  Chouteau  and  De  Munn 
were  arrested  on  the  Animas  river,  brought  to  Santa  Fe,  im- 
prisoned for  fifty  days,  and  finally  deprived  of  all  their  property. 

Shortly  after,  in  1819,  David  Meriwether,  an  Indian  trader, 
was  captured  on  the  Arkansas  river  and  imprisoned  for  some  time 
at  Santa  Fe.  These  events  naturally  prevented  any  further  at- 
tempt at  traffic  across  the  plains  until  the  overthrow  of  the  Span- 
ish authority  by  the  Mexican  revolution  in  1821.  By  a  strange 
chance  of  fortune  the  same  David  Meriwether  who  was  imprisoned 
in  Santa  Fe  in  1819,  re-entered  the  city  as  American  governor 
of  New  Mexico  in  1853. 

In  1821,  an  Ohio  merchant  named  Glenn,  arrived  in  Santa  Fe 
with  a  small  caravan,  having  come  by  what  appears  still  to  have 
been  the  only  known  route  —  into  the  mountains  of  the  present 
Colorado,  and  thence  down  the  Rio  Grande. 

In  the  same  year,  1821 ,  Captain  William  Becknell,  who  is  now 
called  the  founder  of  the  *' Commerce  of  the  Prairies,"  a  Mis- 
sourian,  who  had  made  an  expedition  from  Franklin  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  to  trade  with  the  Indians,  concluded  to  seek 
the  new  Mecca  of  merchants  to  the  south ;  and  found  at  Santa  Fe 
a  far  better  market  than  among  the  Comanches.  Returning  that 
winter  with  the  fruits  of  his  enterprise,  he  raised  a  company  of 
thirty  friends,  and  with  them  and  an  assortment  of  goods  which 
cost  about  $5,000,  and  was  the  largest  venture  of  the  kind  yet 
made,  started  across  the  plains.  They  determined  to  try  a  more 
direct  route,  and  so  branched  off  from  the  Arkansas  river  at  the 


168  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

point  called  '^ihe  Caches,"  intending  to  march  directly  southwest 
to  Santa  Fe.  But  this  daring  enterprise  came  near  costing 
them  all  their  lives,  for  the  unknown  country  into  which  they 
thus  started  as  pioneers  was  utterly  devoid  of  water.  Their 
scanty  supply  was  soon  exhausted,  and  the  horrors  of  thirst  took 
possession  of  them.  They  killed  their  dogs  and  cut  off  the  ears 
of  their  mules  in  order  to  endeavor  to  find  a  moment's  relief  by 
drinking  the  warm  blood  of  the  animals. 

Early  in  May,  Colonel  Cooper,  a  neighbor  of  Captain  Becknell, 
had  left  Missouri,  about  fifteen  being  in  the  party,  and  by  pur- 
suing the  better  known  route  up  the  Arkansas,  had  successfully 
made  the  journey.  Down  to  this  time,  and  indeed  until  1824,  all 
of  the  expeditions  were  on  mule-back,  and  of  course  the  amount  of 
goods  that  could  be  transported  was  comparatively  inconsider- 
able ;  but  in  the  latter  year  a  new  departure  was  made  by  the 
employment  of  vehicles.  The  caravan  which  then  started  con- 
sisted of  twenty-five  wagons  of  different  kinds,  the  largest  part 
being  what  were  then  called  ''Dearborn  carriages,"  besides  a 
number  of  the  pack-mules  which  had  usually  been  employed ;  and 
their  success  in  making  the  trip,  which  presented  fewer  diffi- 
culties than  had  been  anticipated,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the 
Santa  Fe  trade.  The  original  cost  of  the  goods  brought  by  this 
caravan  was  $25,000  to  $30,000. 

From  this  time  the  trips  across  the  plains  became  more  fre- 
quent. The  profits  made  on  American  goods  successfully  trans- 
ported were  immense,  because  the  only  other  route  by  which  they 
could  be  received  was  by  the  sea  to  Vera  Cruz,  across  the  country 
to  the  city  of  Mexico,  thence  over  the  long  and  difficult  road  to 
El  Paso,  and  finally  by  the  semi-annual  caravans  up  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  crossing  the  Jornada,  to  Santa  Fe.  Plain  domestic 
cottons  sold  as  high  as  $2.00  or  $3.00  per  yard,  on  the  plaza  of 
the  capital.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  reports  of  such  profits 
should  have  stimulated  enterprise,  and  caused  the  adventurous 
merchant  to  esteem  the  Santa  Fe  market  as  better  than  a  gold 
field. 

The  occurrence  of  murderous  attacks  by  Indians  caused  the  gov- 
ernment in  1827  to  furnish  an  armed  escort,  consisting  of  four 


THE  SANTA  FE  TEAIL  169 

companies  of  troops  under  Major  Riley,  which  was  to  protect 
the  caravan  as  far  as  Chouteau's  Island,  in  the  Arkansas,  and  the 
various  traders  consolidated  their  trains  into  one  long  caravan. 
But  for  some  unexplained  reason  the  government  failed  to  fur- 
nish similar  military  protection  the  next  year,  and  it  was  only 
repeated  on  special  occasions  thereafter,  as  in  1834,  when  Cap- 
tain "Wharton's  dragoons  were  detailed  for  the  service,  and  in 
1843,  when  a  formidable  army  under  Captain  Cooke  escorted 
two  large  caravans  past  the  principal  points  of  danger. 

As  early  as  1825  the  government  had  taken  the  first  steps  in 
favor  of  encouraging  the  traffickers  of  the  plains  by  appointing 
a  commission,  consisting  of  Messrs,  Reeves,  Sibley,  and  Matthews, 
to  lay  out  a  road  from  the  border  of  Missouri  to  the  confines  of 
Santa  Fe,  but  this  work  was  never  completed. 

The  first  route  followed,  as  we  have  seen,  was  by  a  line  almost 
directly  westward  to  the  mountains  of  Colorado,  and  thence 
south  to  Taos.  Afterwards,  when  the  trade  assumed  importance, 
a  road  along  the  Arkansas,  and  thence  southwest  to  the  Raton 
Pass,  following  substantially  the  present  line  of  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  railroad,  was  used ;  but  another  route  which 
was  a  favorite  one  for  a  long  series  of  years  was  that  along  the 
Arkansas,  thence  across  to  the  Cimarron,  and  so  entering  New 
Mexico,  proceeding  in  an  almost  direct  line  to  the  Wagon  Mound 
—  which  made  a  conspicuous  landmark  —  and  thence  to  Las 
Vegas,  San  Miguel,  and  Santa  Fe.  A  few  trips  were  made  by  a 
more  southerly  route,  starting  from  Van  Buren,  in  Arkansas,  in- 
stead of  Independence ;  and  Mr.  Gregg  pronounced  this  the  most 
excellent  natural  line  of  travel.  But  it  never  became  popular,  or 
was  more  than  an  experiment. 

In  1839  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  route  from  Chi- 
huahua and  El  Paso  to  the  east,  without  going  to  Santa  Fe  at  all. 
This  was  undertaken  chiefly  by  Mexican  merchants,  but  Dr.  Con- 
nelly took  a  leading  part  in  the  enterprise  also.  The  expedition 
set  out  from  Chihuahua,  April  3,  1839,  amid  general  acclama- 
tions, as  the  people  saw  in  it  the  commencement  of  a  great  whole- 
sale trade  for  their  city.  Seven  wagons,  with  about  $250,000 
in  bullion,  constituted  the  caravan ;  and  for  lack  of  knowledge  of 


170  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  country,- lost  considerable  time,  both  in  going  and  returning, 
and  did  not  reach  Chihuahua,  on  their  return  (when  they  brought 
sixty  or  seventy  wagons  laden  with  merchandise),  until  August 
27,  1840.  A  change,  meanwhile,  had  taken  place  in  the  Mexican 
officials,  which  greatly  affected  the  duties  to  be  paid,  so  that  the 
enterprise  was  a  financial  failure,  and  was  never  repeated. 

Down  to  1824  only  pack-animals  were  employed;  in  1824  and 
1825  pack-animals  and  wagons ;  and  commencing  in  1826,  nothing 
but  wagons.  Oxen  were  first  used  in  1830.  The  following  sta- 
tistics, taken  from  Gregg's  Commerce  of  the  Praines,  show  the 
gradual  increase  in  the  business  from  its  commencement  in  1822 
until  1843,  when  the  tra  de  was  temporarily  closed : 

Years                 Cost  of  Merchandise  No.  Wagons  Men 

1822 $  15,000 70 

1823 12,000 50 

1824 35,000 2G 100 

1825 65,000 37 130 

1826 90,000 60 100 

1827 85,000 55 90 

1828 150,000 100 200 

1829 60,000 30 50 

1830 , 120,000 70 140 

1831 250,000 130 320 

1832 140,000 70 150 

1833 180,000 105 185 

1834 150,000 80 160 

1835 140,000 75 140 

1836 130,000 70 135 

1837 150,000 80 160 

1838 90,000 50 100 

1839 ■.  250,000 130 250 

1840 50,000 30 60 

1841 150,000 60 100 

1842 160,000 70 120 

1843 450,000. 230 350 


THE  SANTA  FE  TEAIL  171 

In  the  beginning  of  the  traffic  across  the  plains,  those  engaged 
in  it  were  nearly  all  Americans  or  French,  from  the  western 
states ;  but  gradually  New  Mexicans  of  wealth  began  to  take  part 
in  the  business,  until  in  1843  the  greater  part  of  the  traders  were 
New  Mexicans,  and  they  bid  fair  to  secure  a  monopolj^ 

While  the  time  occupied  in  making  the  passage,  of  course, 
varied  considerably  according  to  circumstances,  yet  an  average 
trip  to  Santa  Fe,  with  loaded  wagons,  occupied  about  seventy 
days,  and  the  return  trip  about  forty  days.  The  eastward  loads 
were  comparatively  light,  usually  from  1,000  to  2,000  pounds,  and 
the  approaching  winter  compelled  haste.  On  one  occasion  F.  X. 
Aubrey,  a  young  man  of  Canadian  descent,  rode,  on  a  wager,  from 
Santa  Fe  to  Independence  in  five  days  and  ten  hours;  his  own 
mare  Nellie  carrying  him  150  miles  of  the  distance. 

Gregg,  in  his  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  gives  a  graphic  ac- 
count of  the  way  in  which  the  movements  of  the  caravan  were 
managed.  The  first  business  was  to  elect  a  ' '  Captain  of  the  Cara- 
van, ' '  who  directed  the  order  of  travel  and  designated  the  camp- 
ing-grounds. The  proprietors  furnished  a  full  list  of  the  wagons 
and  men,  and  the  caravan  was  then  apportioned  into  about  four 
divisions,  each  with  a  lieutenant  in  command,  as  they  generally 
marched  in  four  lines  abreast. 

The  place  of  rendezvous  for  the  caravan  was  usually  Council 
Grove,  the  wagons  lea^dng  Independence  at  somewhat  different 
times. 

It  was  the  custom  when  about  200  miles  from  Santa  Fe  to  send 
a  party  of  couriers,  composed  generally  of  proprietors  or  agents, 
ahead  to  that  city,  with  a  view  to  procuring  provisions,  securing 
good  store-houses,  and  if  possible  arriving  at  an  understanding 
with  the  custom-house  officials.  At  the  crossing  of  Red  river, 
some  part  of  the  caravan  frequently  left  the  main  body  to  proceed 
westerly  to  Taos;  and  a  little  further  on  they  were  met  by  the 
custom-house  guard,  who  came  to  escort  the  caravan  into  Santa 
Fe  to  prevent  smuggling. 

When  the  caravan  finally  came  in  sight  of  Santa  Fe,  great  ex- 
citement prevailed  both  among  those  connected  with  the  wagons, 


172  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  in  the  city,  and  the  arrival  produced  a  great  deal  of  bustle 
among  the  natives. 

The  wagons  were  soon  discharged  in  the  warerooms  of  the 
custom-house ;  and  the  weary  travelers  had  time  to  take  that  re- 
creation which  a  fatiguing  journey  of  ten  weeks  had  rendered  so 
necessary. 

The  derechos  de  arancel  ( tariff  duties)  of  Mexico  were  extreme- 
ly oppressive,  averaging  about  100%  upon  the  United  States'  cost 
of  an  ordinary  Santa  Fe  assortment.  Those  on  cotton  textures 
are  particularly  so.  According  to  the  arancel  of  1837  all  plain- 
wove  cottons,  whether  white  or  printed,  paid  twelve  and  a  half 
cents  duty  per  vara,  besides  the  derecho  de  consumo  (consump- 
tion duty),  which  brought  it  up  to  at  least  fifteen.  For  a  few 
years,  Governor  Armijo  established  a  tariff  of  his  own,  entirely 
arbitrary  —  exacting  $500  for  each  wagon-load,  whether  large 
or  small,  of  fine  or  coarse  goods  I  Of  course  this  was  very  advan- 
tageous to  traders  having  large  wagons,  and  costly  assortments, 
while  it  was  no  less  onerous  to  those  with  smaller  vehicles  of 
coarse  heavy  goods.  As  might  have  been  anticipated,  the  traders 
soon  used  only  the  largest  wagons,  drawn  by  ten  or  twelve  mules, 
and  omitted  the  coarser  and  more  weighty  articles  of  trade. 
This  caused  the  governor  to  return  to  the  ad  valorem  system, 
though  still  without  regard  to  the  arancel  general  of  the  nation. 
It  was  calculated  that  the  amount  collected  each  year  at  this 
time  amounted  to  between  $50,000  and  $60,000. 

The  return  trip  usually  commenced  four  or  five  weeks  after  the 
arrival  at  Santa  Fe ;  generally  about  the  1st  of  September. 
Usually  the  caravan  consisted  of  only  thirty  or  forty  wagons,  a 
large  portion  of  those  taken  out  being  disposed  of  in  the  country. 
The  return  cargo,  which  was  the  proceeds  of  the  venture,  was 
silver  bullion  from  Chihuahua  —  and  in  later  years,  gold-dust 
from  the  placers  south  of  Santa  Fe  —  buffalo-rugs,  furs,  coarse 
Mexican  blankets  and  wool,  the  latter,  however,  hardly  paying  a 
fair  freight,  but  being  used  to  fill  Avagons  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  empty. 

Stories  of  tragedies  on  the  plains,  during  the  early  days,  could 


THE  SANTA  Ffi  TEAIL  173 

be  multiplied  almost  indefinitely.  Generally  they  resulted  from 
the  carelessness  or  over-confidence  of  the  traders. 

After  the  year  1831,  however,  Indian  attacks  on  the  regular 
route  ceased;  but  soon  after,  new  difficulties  arose.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  Texan  ''Santa  Fe  Expedition,"  in  1841,  which  is 
narrated  elsewhere,  aroused  great  indignation  in  the  "Lone  Star" 
Republic,  and  rumors  were  rife  in  1842  that  a  band  of  Texans  was 
preparing  for  an  organized  attack  on  any  Mexicans  whom  they 
could  find  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail.  Early  in  the  next  year  one 
Colonel  Warfield,  said  to  have  held  a  Texan  commission,  formed  a 
company,  with  which  he  attacked  the  town  of  Mora — ^then  the 
most  advanced  settlement  in  that  direction  —  killing  five  men  and 
driving  off  a  lot  of  horses.  About  the  same  time  a  Texan  named 
John  McDaniel,  claiming  to  hold  a  captain's  commission,  raised  a 
party  of  men  on  the  border  of  Missouri,  and  started  to  join  War- 
field.  On  the  way  he  met  Don  Antonio  Jose  Chavez,  of  New 
Mexico,  traveling  towards  Independence  with  a  small  party,  con- 
sisting of  five  sei'vants,  with  two  wagons  and  fifty-five  mules,  and 
$10,000  or  $12,000  in  specie  and  bullion.  Although  within  the 
United  States  territory,  the  marauders  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
Chavez,  and  rifle  his  baggage,  from  which  each  member  of  Mc- 
Daniel's  party  obtained  about  $500  as  his  share  of  the  booty; 
and  immediately  after,  seven  of  them  left  for  the  settlements, 
satisfied  with  this  exploit.  The  remaining  eight  for  some  reason 
determined  to  murder  Chavez,  and  soon  after  carried  their  cruel 
design  into  execution  —  taking  their  victim  a  few  rods  from  the 
camp  and  shooting  him  in  cold  blood.  A  considerable  amount  of 
gold  was  found  on  his  person  and  in  his  trunk,  and  was  divided 
among  the  murderers,  who  thereupon  fled  towards  Missouri. 

This  outrage  was  the  more  abominable  because  Chavez  belonged 
to  a  very  influential  family,  who  had  done  all  that  kind  hearts 
could  dictate  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  Texan  prisoners, 
on  their  march  down  the  Rio  Grande. 

As  soon  as  the  outlaws  reached  the  borders  of  civilization,  ten 
of  them  were  arrested  and  sent  to  St.  Louis  for  trial,  five  others 
escaping.    Those  of  the  prisoners  who  were  found  guilty  of  par- 


174  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ticipation  in  the  murder  of  Chavez,  including  Captain  McDaniel, 
were  executed  according  to  law,  and  the  others  were  convicted  of 
robbery  and  sentenced  accordingly. 

About  May  1st,  of  the  same  year,  a  company  of  175  men  was 
organized  in  northern  Texas,  under  Colonel  Snively,  for  opera- 
tions against  Mexicans  engaged  in  the  Santa  Fe  trade.  They 
soon  after  encountered  a  Mexican  caravan,  containing  about  100 
men,  attacked  it,  and  killed  eighteen  besides  five  Avho  subsequently 
died,  and  captured  nearly  all  of  the  remainder.  This  was  in 
Mexican  or  Texan  territory,  and  has  been  justified  by  some  as  a 
fair  act  of  warfare ;  but  by  others  it  has  been  held  to  be  beyond 
the  proper  limits  of  belligerency. 

The  occurrence  of  such  events  determined  President  Santa  Ana 
to  close  the  north  of  the  Mexican  Republic  against  any  further 
commerce ;  which  for  a  time  ended  the  business  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail.  The  decree  is  dated  at  Tacubaya,  August  7,  1843,  and 
was  to  take  effect  in  forty-five  days.  The  next  spring,  however, 
the  custom-houses  were  re-opened  and  the  trade  renewed.  In 
1846  the  number  of  wagons  in  the  caravan  was  414,  and  the 
value  of  the  merchandise  transported  was  estimated  at  $1,752,250. 
After  the  American  occupation  the  business  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail  still  further  increased;  new  and  large  commercial  estab- 
lishments being  founded  at  the  capital  city,  from  which  a  great 
part  of  northern  Mexico  as  well  as  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  were 
supplied. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Spanish  and  Mexican  Governors 

SPANISH  GOVERNORS  AND  CAPTAINS  GENERAL  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Juan  de  Ofiate,  1598-1608. 
Pedro  de  Peralta,  1608. 
Felipe  Zotylo,  1621-8. 
Manuel  de  Silva,  1629. 
Fernando  de  Ar^ello,  1640. 
Luis  de  Rosas,  1641. 

Valdez,  1642. 

Alonso  Pacheco  de  Heredia,  1643. 

Fernando  de  Arguello,  1645. 

Luis  de  Guzman,  1647. 

Hernando  de  Ugarte  y  la  Concha,  1650. 

Juan  de  Samaniego,  1653-4. 

Enrique  de  Avila  y  Pacheco,  1656. 

Bernardo  Lopez  de  Mendizabal,  1660. 

Diego  de  Peiialoza  Briceno,  1661-4. 

Fernando  de  Villanueva. 

Juan  de  Medrano. 

Juan  de  Miranda. 

Juan  Francisco  de  Treviiio,  1675. 

Antonio  Otermin,  1679-83. 

Domingo  Jironza  Petriz  Cruzate,  1683-6. 

Pedro  Reneros  de  Posada,  1686-9. 

Domingo  Jironza  Petriz  Cruzate,  1689-91. 

Diego  de  Vargas  Zapata  Lujan  Ponce  de  Leon,  1691-7. 

Pedro  Rodriguez  Cubero,  1697-1703. 

Diego  de  Vargas  Zapata  Lujan  Ponce  de  Leon,  1703-4. 

Juan  Paez  Hurtado,  acting,  1704-5. 


176  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Francisco  Cuervo  y  Valdez,  ad  interim^  1705-7. 
Jose  Chacon  Medina  Salazar  y  Villaseiior,  Marquez  de  la  Penu- 
ela,  1707-12. 

Juan  Ignacio  Flores  MogoUon,  1712-15. 

Felix  Martinez,  ad  interim,  1715-17. 

Juan  Paez  Hurtado,  acting,  1717. 

Antonio  Valverde  y  Cosio,  ad  interim,  1717-22. 

Juan  de  Estrada  y  Austria  (?),  ad.  interim ^  1721. 

Juan  Domingo  de  Bustamante,  1722-31. 

Gervasio  Cruzat  y  Gongora,  1731-6. 

Enrique  de  Olavide  y  Micheleiia,  ad  interim,  1736-9. 

Gaspar  Domingo  de  Mendoza,  1739-43. 

Joaquin  Codallos  y  Rabal,  1743-9. 

Francisco  de  la  Rocha  (appointed),  1747  (never  acted). 

Tomas  Velez  Cachupin,  1749-54. 

Francisco  Antonio  Marin  del  Valle,  1754-60. 

Mateo  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  acting,  1760. 

Manuel  Portillo  Urrisola,  acting,  1761-2. 

Tomas  Velez  Cachupin,  1762-7. 

Pedro  Fermin  de  Mendinueta,  1767-78. 

[Hereafter  the  title  of  Captain  General  is  omitted.] 

Francisco  Trebol  Navarro,  acting,  1778. 

Juan  Bautista  de  Anza,  1778-89. 

Manuel  Flon  (appointed),  1785  (never  acted). 

Fernando  de  la  Concha,  1789-94. 

Fernando  Chacon,  1794-1805. 

Joaquin  del  Real  Alencaster,  1805-8. 

Alberto  Mainez,  acting,  1807-8. 

Jose  Manrique,  1808-14. 

Alberto  Mainez,  1814-16. 

Pedro  Maria  de  AUande,  1816-18. 

Facundo  Melgares,  1818-22. 

Mexican  Gon^rnors 

(With  the  title  of  Jefe  Politico  until  1837) 
Antonio  Viscarra,  1822. 
Francisco  Javier  Chaves,  1823. 


SPANISH  AND  MEXICAN  GOVERNORS      177 

Bartolome  Baca,  1823  to  September,  1825. 
Antonio  Narbona,  1825  to  May,  1827. 
Manuel  Armijo,  1827-8. 
Antonio  Viscarra,  acting,  1828. 
Jose  Antonio  Chaves,  1828-31. 
Santiago  Abreu,  1831-3. 
Francisco  Sarracino,  1833-5. 
Juan  Rafael  Ortiz,  acting,  1834. 
Mariano  Chaves,  acting,  1835,  May  to  July. 
Albino  Perez,  1835-7  (assassinated).     (Title  of  Governor  from 
1837.) 

Pedro  Muiioz,  acting,  1837-8. 

Jose  Gonzales,  revolutionary  governor,  1837-8. 

Manuel  Armijo,  1838-40,  and  till  1846. 

Antonio  Sandoval,  acting,  1841. 

Mariano  Martinez  de  Lejanza,  1844-5. 

Jose  Chaves,  acting,  1845. 

Juan  Bautista  Vigil  y  Alarid,  acting,  184G. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

The  American  Occupation 

The  commencement  of  a  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  naturally  caused  great  concern  and  excitement  in  New 
Mexico,  not  only  because  a  part  of  the  soil  was  directly  in  contro- 
versy as  being  within  the  boundaries  claimed  by  Texas,  but  also 
because  the  news  of  the  commencement  of  hostilities  at  Palo  Alto 
and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  in  May,  1846,  was  almost  immediately 
followed  by  information  that  an  expedition  was  being  fitted  out 
in  Missouri  for  an  attack  on  Santa  Fe. 

This  was  the  American  "Army  of  the  West,"  which  was  or- 
dered to  rendezvous  at  Port  Leavenworth,  under  General  Stephen 
"W.  Kearny,  for  the  conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  California.  This 
army  was  composed  of  the  First  Dragoons,  U.  S.  A.,  of  which 
Kearny  was  colonel;  a  Missouri  regiment  under  Colonel  Doni- 
phan; a  batterj^  of  light  artillery,  commanded  by  Major  Clark; 
two  companies  of  infantry,  and  the  La  Clede  rangers  of  St.  Louis ; 
the  whole  together  comprising  1,658  men  and  sixteen  pieces  of 
ordnance. 

Although  intended  to  meet  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  the  different 
parts  of  the  little  army  did  not  really  come  together  until  they 
had  crossed  the  plains  and  arrived  at  Bent's  Fort,  near  the  pres- 
ent village  of  Las  Animas,  and  then  the  great  rendezvous  for 
w^estern  traders,  at  which  point  they  found  no  less  than  414 
loaded  wagons,  awaiting  protection.  From  here  a  small  detach- 
ment was  sent  to  the  Taos  valley  to  ascertain  the  disposition  of 
the  people,'  the  main  body  going  on  by  way  of  the  Raton  Pass. 
The  Taos  party  rejoined  the  army  near  the  Ponil,  with  fourteen 
prisoners,  and  bringing  the  news  that  five  thousand  of  the  Pueblos 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  179 

and  other  Indians  had  joined  the  Mexicans,  who  were  determined 
to  contest  the  entire  route  from  San  Miguel  to  Santa  Fe. 

The  first  habitations  seen  were  on  the  banks  of  the  Mora,  on  the 
ranch  of  James  Bonney,  who  had  recently  settled  there  and  who 
treated  the  officers  with  much  hospitality.  On  August  15  the 
army  entered  Las  Vegas,  then  a  comparatively  new  and  small 
town,  and  here  stopped  long  enough  for  the  general  to  make  a 
proclamation  of  pacific  intentions  towards  the  people,  and  to  ad- 
minister the  oath  of  allegiance  of  the  United  States  to  the  alcalde, 
Juan  de  Dios  Maes,  who  was  then  confirmed  in  his  office.  Tecolote 
was  the  next  town  reached,  and  here  similar  proceedings  were 
had,  as  well  as  at  San  Miguel,  then  the  county  seat  and  principal 
town  of  the  portion  of  New  Mexico  east  of  the  mountains,  on  the 
next  day. 

Meanwhile  General  Armijo,  the  Mexican  governor,  after  issuing 
a  stirring  proclamation  calling  on  the  people  to  rise  and  defend 
their  homes,  had  marched  from  Santa  Fe  to  the  narrow  pass  at 
Canoncito,  where  he  had  encamped  in  an  almost  impregnable  lo- 
cation, to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  American  army.  So  strong 
was  the  position,  that  Kearny  did  not  think  of  attacking  it  di- 
rectly, but  had  arranged  to  take  a  circuitous  route  which  would 
carry  him  around  it  mthout  great  danger,  and  encamped  near 
the  ruins  of  Pecos  with  that  intent  on  the  night  of  August  17. 
But,  during  the  night,  the  Mexican  army,  largely  made  up  of  in- 
experienced volunteers,  poorly  armed,  had  heard  such  exagger- 
ated accounts  of  the  force  of  the  Americans,  that  it  became  de- 
moralized ;  many  left  for  their  homes,  and  Armijo,  after  a  council 
of  war  with  his  chief  officers,  concluded  to  retire  with  those  who 
remained  faithful  to  him,  toward  the  south. 

So  the  Americans,  instead  of  a  mountain  trail,  found  the  main 
road  open,  and  proceeded  toward  the  capital  unembarrassed  ex- 
cept by  the  breastwork  of  trees  that  had  been  thrown  across  the 
canon.  Wishing,  if  possible,  to  reach  there  in  one  day,  especially 
as  their  provisions  were  almost  exhausted,  they  made  a  forced 
march,  and  arrived  at  Santa  Fe  before  night-fall,  raising  the 
stars  and  stripes  over  the  palace,  and  then  retiring  to  the  high 


180  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ground  in  the  southeast  part  of  the  town,  for  a  camp.  This  was 
on  August  18.  General  Kearny  and  several  officers  came  a  little 
in  advance  and  were  received  at  the  palace  by  the  secretary  and 
acting  governor,  Juan  Bautista  Vigil,  who  formally  delivered  to 
them  the  government  of  the  city. 

Few  marches  in  American  history  exceed  in  daring  that  of  the 
little  ''Army  of  the  West"  across  the  plains.  Consisting  of  less 
than  two  regiments  of  men,  it  marched  nine  hundred  miles  from 
its  base  of  supplies,  largely  through  a  desert  region,  not  seeing  a 
habitation  except  Bent's  Fort  between  Leavenworth  and  the  Mora 
river;  suffering  greatly  from  lack  of  water,  and  with  neither  pro- 
visions nor  money  sufficient  to  procure  them  for  so  long  a  march. 
During  the  last  part  of  the  journey  they  were  reduced  to  one- 
third  rations,  and  even  with  this  small  allowance  only  enough 
remained  for  the  least  number  of  days  possible  to  reach  Santa 
Fe,  by  rapid  and  uninterrupted  marching,  so  that  they  arrived 
at  the  capital  entirely  destitute.  Even  here  their  privations  were 
not  at  an  end,  for  the  commissary  was  without  money,  and  the 
people  having  been  declared  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
therefore  fully  protected,  no  property  could  be  taken  without 
cash  pajrment. 

The  first  business  of  General  Kearny,  after  taking  possession 
of  Santa  Fe,  was  to  commence  the  building  of  Fort  Marcy,  on 
the  heights  overlooking  the  citj'',  in  order  to  secure  the  fruits  of 
his  bloodless  victory ;  and  then  to  establish  a  provisional  govern- 
ment. On  the  morning  of  the  19th,  he  assembled  the  people  in 
the  Plaza,  and  addressed  them  in  re-assuring  language,  saying 
that  the  army  came  with  peaceable  intentions  and  kind  feelings, 
that  they  would  be  secure  in  their  persons,  property  and  religion ; 
announcing  that  he  had  taken  possession  of  all  New  Mexico  for 
the  United  States,  and  that  ''you  are  no  longer  Mexican  subjects, 
you  have  become  American  citizens.  I  am  your  governor ;  hence- 
forth look  to  me  for  protection. "  This  address  was  received  with 
general  satisfaction,  was  replied  to  in  fitting  terms  by  Juan  Bau- 
tista Vigil,  who  accepted  the  new  sovereignty  in  the  name  of 
the  people;  and  the  governor  then  confirmed  in  their  positions 


GROUND  PLAN  OF  OLD  FORT  MARCY,  SANTA  FE 


182  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

most  of  the  former  officers,  administering  to  each  of  them  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  United  States. 

Fearing  that  there  might  be  a  concentration  of  Mexican  troops 
to  the  south,  General  Kearny  marched  with  725  mounted  men 
down  the  Rio  Grande  valley  as  far  as  Tome;  being  everywhere 
well  received  by  the  people  and  finding  no  enemies  of  any  kind. 
On  the  22d  of  September,  he  established  a  regular  civil  govern- 
ment by  the  appointment  of  Charles  Bent,  of  Taos,  as  governor, 
Donaciano  Vigil  as  secretary,  and  Francis  P.  Blair  as  district 
attorney,  together  with  judges  and  other  officials.  Governor  Bent 
was  an  old  resident,  married  to  a  New  Mexican,  and  highly  es- 
teemed throughout  the  entire  territory.  Having  thus  provided 
for  the  government  of  the  territory,  General  Kearny  set  out  with 
his  little  army  on  September  26  for  California,  as  a  wider  field  for 
his  energy  and  administrative  ability,  leaving  Colonel  Doniphan 
in  command. 

This  latter  officer  had  orders  to  march  immediately  to  Chi- 
huahua, where  it  was  supposed  that  General  Wool  had  arrived 
with  a  column  from  San  Antonio;  but  just  as  he  Avas  starting 
news  arrived  of  an  attack  by  Navajos  on  Polvadera,  which  in- 
duced a  change  of  programme,  and  an  expedition  against  those 
Indians  was  determined  on ;  so  that  the  troops,  which  had  come 
across  the  plains  in  hostility  to  the  Mexicans,  found  their  first 
active  duty  in  their  defense  against  their  old  enemies. 

This  was  a  matter  difficult  to  explain  to  the  Indian  mind,  which 
considered  that  the  Americans  and  themselves  were  both  at  war 
with  the  same  enemies,  but  Colonel  Doniphan  finally  succeeded 
in  having  a  treaty  made  by  which  they  agreed  to  cease  from  all 
depredations.  This  accomplished  he  set  out  on  his  celebrated 
march  to  Chihuahua,  on  December  14,  leaving  the  remaining 
troops  in  command  of  Colonel  Sterling  Price. 

Scarcely  a  day  had  passed  after  his  departure  before  rumor 
became  rife  of  an  impending  revolt  bj^  people  of  the  territory. 
In  judging  of  this  we  are  to  remember  that  these  people  were 
Mexicans,  that  their  mother  country  was  at  war  with  the  United 
States,  and  that  the  American  troops  had  invaded  and  practically 


THE  AMEEICAN  OCCUPATION  183 

conquered  New  Mexico,  which  was  occupied  by  a  portion  of  the 
army ;  so  that  from  their  point  of  view,  it  was  an  act  of  patriot- 
ism to  attempt  to  drive  from  their  soil  these  invaders  of  their 
country  and  restore  it  to  its  old  position. 

The  leaders  in  the  contemplated  revolt  were  Diego  Archuleta, 
who  had  been  a  member  of  the  Mexican  congress,  and  Tomas  Or- 
tiz, who  had  been  high  in  command  under  Armijo,  both  men  of 
large  influence,  and  they  were  supported  b^^  many  of  the  lead- 
ing Mexicans  of  the  north  of  the  territory  and  especially  by  two 
prominent  priests.  Padre  Ortiz,  the  vicario,  and  Padre  Gallegos. 
The  first  general  meeting  was  held  on  the  12th  of  December,  when 
it  was  decided  that  the  rising  should  take  place  one  week  from 
that  day,  when  all  Americans,  and  all  Mexicans  who  had  con- 
sented to  hold  office  under  the  American  governor,  should  be 
killed  or  driven  out  of  the  territory. 

Everything  was  carefully  arranged,  and  the  attempt  might 
have  been  successful,  but  that,  by  the  advice  of  some  timid  spirits, 
the  time  of  action  was  postponed  until  Christmas  eve.  This  de- 
lay was  fatal  to  the  project,  for  meanwhile  information  of  the 
conspiracy  was  conveyed  to  the  governor,  who  promptly  arrested 
those  suspected,  and  took  such  measures  as  rendered  the  attempt 
abortive. 

Although  thus  quelled  for  a  time,  however,  the  spirit  of  revolt 
was  far  from  destroyed,  and  suddenly  developed  itself  in  a  most 
unexpected  manner.  Supposing  all  danger  to  be  passed,  Gover- 
nor Bent  left  Santa  Fe  on  January  14,  on  a  visit  to  liis  home  in 
Taos,  being  accompanied  by  the  sheriff  and  prefect  of  Taos  county, 
the  district  attorney,  and  some  others.  On  the  night  of  the  19th, 
a  large  body  of  men,  partly  Mexicans  and  partly  Pueblo  Indians, 
attacked  his  residence  and  succeeded  in  killing  not  only  the  gov- 
ernor, but  Sheriff  Lee,  Prefect  Vigil,  District  Attorney  Leal,  Nar- 
ciso  Beaubien,  a  son  of  Judge  Beaubien,  and  Pablo  Jaramillo,  a 
brother-in-law  of  the  governor.  At  the  same  time  attacks  were 
made  on  the  Americans  at  the  Arroyo  Hondo  and  Rio  Colorado 
above  Taos,  and  at  Mora,  a  number  being  killed  at  each  place. 
The  intention  evidently  was  to  have  a  general  rising  all  over  the 


184  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

territory,  as  messengers  came  from  Mora  to  Las  Vegas  bringing 
the  news  of  the  revolt  and  urging  the  people  there  to  rise;  but 
no  action  was  taken  there,  owing  to  the  loyalty  of  the  alcalde 
and  the  timely  arrival  of  a  few  troops. 

The  startling  news  of  the  assassination  was  swiftly  carried  to 
Santa  Fe  and  reached  Colonel  Price  the  next  day,  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  tidings  of  the  approach  of  a  large  Mexican  and  Indian 
force,  down  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  to  attack  the  capital. 
The  situation  was  extremely  critical.  Very  few  troops  were  in 
Santa  Fe ;  in  fact  the  number  remaining  in  the  whole  territory 
was  very  small,  and  they  were  scattered  at  Alburquerque,  Las 
Vegas,  and  other  distant  points.  Delay  meant  destruction,  and 
Colonel  Price  lost  no  time  in  taking  such  measures  as  were  pos- 
sible with  his  limited  resources.  Orders  were  sent  to  Albu- 
querque for  the  two  companies  stationed  there  to  come  northward, 
and  Price  himself  determined  to  march  immediately  to  meet  the 
insurgent  army. 

All  the  force  that  he  could  muster  was  three  hundred  and  ten 
men,  including  Captain  Angney's  company  and  a  few  other  regu- 
lar troops,  and  a  volunteer  company  composed  of  nearly  all  the 
Americans  in  the  city,  under  command  of  Colonel  Ceran  St. 
Vrain,  who  happened  to  be  in  Santa  Fe  at  the  time.  In  this 
latter  company  were  also  Manuel  Chaves,  Nicolas  Pino,  and  some 
other  prominent  New  Mexicans,  who  volunteered  their  services. 
They  set  out  on  January  23,  nerved  b.y  the  belief  that  there  was 
no  alternative  but  victory  or  annihilation.  Scarcely  had  the  little 
army  passed  Pojuaque,  when,  in  the  narrow  defile  on  the  road, 
they  met  the  advance  guard  of  the  Mexicans,  and  soon  after 
found  the  main  body  drawn  up  on  the  high  bank  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  river  just  east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  They  were  com- 
manded by  General  Montoya,  aided  by  Generals  Tafoya  and 
Chavez.  Here  a  fierce  battle  took  place.  The  Mexican  army  was 
large,  but  undisciplined  and  poorly  provided  with  arms.  They 
had,  however,  a  great  advantage  in  their  position  and  in  the  occu- 
pancy of  a  number  of  adobe  houses,  which  were  practically 
fortresses.     Nevertheless,  by  a  vigorous  charge  in  front  and  a 


THE  AMEEICAN  OCCUPATION  185 

ilank  attack  by  St.  Vrain's  volunteers,  they  were  finally  dislodged 
and  forced  to  retreat,  leaving  thirty-six  dead  on  the  field,  General 
Tafoya  being  among  the  number. 

At  Los  Luceros  the  Americans  were  re-enforced  by  the  timely 
arrival  of  Captain  Burgwin's  company  of  cavalry,  which  had 
hastened  up  from  Albuquerque,  and  much  encouraged  thereby 
they  rapidly  marched  toward  Taos.  At  Embudo  the  Mexicans 
made  another  stand,  in  a  narrow  canon,  but  were  forced  to 
abandon  it,  and  retreated  towards  the  north,  finally  concentrat- 
ing at  the  pueblo  of  Taos,  in  the  church  of  which,  with  walls  from 
three  to  six  feet  thick,  they  fortified  themselves,  large  numbers 
having  deserted  since  the  battle  at  Santa  Cruz  (often  called  the 
battle  of  La  Canada)  and  returned  to  their  homes. 

Against  this  building  the  Americans,  as  soon  as  they  arrived, 
directed  their  attack ;  but  cannon-balls  made  little  impression  on 
the  massive  walls,  in  which  they  simply  imbedded  themselves, 
without  doing  any  damage;  so  after  two  hours'  bombardment 
they  withdrew,  towards  evening,  to  the  Mexican  town  of  Fernan- 
dez de  Taos,  three  miles  distant.  Early  the  next  morning  the 
attack  was  renewed,  but  was  bravely  met,  and  it  was  not  until 
after  a  seven  hours'  struggle,  in  which  the  cannon  were  finally 
brought  up  within  sixty  yards  of  the  church,  and  one  or  two  un- 
successful attempts  were  made  to  carry  it  by  storm,  that  the 
stronghold  was  taken;  and  then  with  a  loss  of  a  number  of  sol- 
diers and  of  the  gallant  Captain  Burgwin,  who  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  very  wall.  One  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  in- 
surgents were  killed,  and  the  next  day  the  entire  pueblo  surren- 
dered. 

This  practically  ended  the  revolt.  General  Montoya  and  four- 
teen others  were  tried  for  the  murder  of  Governor  Bent  and  the 
others  killed  on  January  19,  and  were  convicted  and  executed. 
Others  were  sentenced  to  be  hung  for  treason ;  but  the  President 
properly  pardoned  them  on  the  ground  that  no  Mexican  could  be 
guilty  of  treason  against  the  United  States  while  war  actually 
existed  between  the  two  countries.  A  few  outbreaks  occurred  at 
isolated  points  soon  afterward,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  insti- 


186  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

gated  rather  for  purposes  of  plunder  than  by  any  regular  attempt 
to  destroy  the  American  authority,  and  later  in  the  year  the  ar- 
rival in  Santa  Fe  of  large  re-enforcements  made  any  future  revolt 
futile.  At  the  same  time  the  people  began  to  see  that  they  had 
really  more  freedom  and  better  protection  from  the  Indians, 
under  the  American  flag,  than  that  of  Mexico ;  and  finding  that 
the  stories  circulated  about  the  new  comers  generally  proved  to  be 
untrue,  they  gradually  became  reconciled  to  the  change  in  gov- 
ernment. 

The  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  ceded  all  New  Mexico  to  the 
United  States,  at  the  same  time  constituting  all  of  its  people, 
except  those  who  preferred  formally  to  retain  their  Mexican 
citizenship,  citizens  of  the  United  States,  with  the  full  rights  and 
privileges  belonging  to  that  character ;  and  thus  the  territory  and 
its  people  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Great  American  Re- 
public. 


CHAPTER  XX 

11.  S.  Provisional  Government,  1846-51 

As  soon  as  peace  was  established  the  people  of  the  territory 
began  to  desire  a  settled  civil  government,  and  this  feeling  was 
strengthened  by  a  letter  from  Hon.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  then 
senator  from  Missouri,  addressed  to  the  people  of  California  and 
New  Mexico,  advising  them,  in  the  absence  of  action  by  Congress, 
to  organize  governments  for  themselves.  Captain  W.  Z.  Angney, 
who  had  borne  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  American  occupation, 
endeavored  to  have  the  people  act  on  this,  and  a  number  of  meet- 
ings were  held,  until  the  excitement  ran  so  high  that  Colonel 
Washington,  the  civil  and  military  governor,  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  issue  a  proclamation  on  the  subject. 

Meanwhile,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Kearny  Code,  the  first 
legislature  of  New  Mexico  had  been  elected,  and  had  held  its 
regular  session,  beginning  on  December  6,  1847.  The  Council 
consisted  of  seven  member's  elected  by  districts,  with  Antonio 
Sandoval,  of  Bernalillo  county,  as  president;  and  the  House  of 
twenty-one  members  with  W.  Z.  Angney  as  speaker. 

This  legislature  could  do  little  but  local  business,  as  the  treaty 
of  peace  with  Mexico  was  not  yet  signed,  but  it  has  been  rendered 
famous  by  the  bold  and  excellent  character  of  the  message  de- 
livered to  the  joint  session  by  Gov.  Donaciano  Vigil,  especially 
relative  to  public  education. 

This  legislature  passed  an  act  providing  for  a  convention  to 
consider  a  permanent  form  of  government  for  New  Mexico,  and 
the  delegates  for  this  purpose  were  elected  in  1848  and  met  on 
October  10  of  that  year.  This  convention  continued  in  session 
four  days,  with  Father  Antonio  Jose  Martinez  as  president,  and 
J.  M.  Giddings,  secretary.    It  adopted  a  memorial  to  Congress 


188  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

asking  for  a  regular  territorial  government,  and  declared  against 
the  introduction  of  domestic  slavery. 

Early  in  1849  a  number  of  citizens  requested  Hugh  N.  Smith 
to  go  to  Washington,  as  an  un-official  representative  of  the  terri- 
tory, in  order  to  obtain  immediate  legislation,  his  expenses  being 
paid  by  private  subscription.  This,  however,  created  some  jeal- 
ousy, and  the  military  governor  called  an  election  of  delegates 
to  a  convention  to  frame  a  territorial  form  of  government.  This 
convention  met  on  September  24,  1849,  and  organized  by  electing 
Antonio  Jose  (Padre)  Martinez  as  president,  and  James  H. 
Quinn,  secretary.  By  a  vote  of  15  to  4  Mr.  Smith  was  elected 
as  delegate  to  congress,  but  failed  to  have  the  election  recog- 
nized or  to  obtain  a  seat. 

Meanwhile,  Texas,  which  claimed  all  the  territory  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  sent  Spruce  M.  Baird,  as  judge,  to  organize  that 
district  into  a  county  to  be  called  Santa  Fe.  But  he  was  received 
with  such  opposition  that  he  did  not  attempt  to  carry  his  instruc- 
tions into  effect.  Soon  afterward,  earlj^  in  the  spring  of  1850, 
they  sent  a  second  commissioner,  Robert  S.  Neighbors,  to  organ- 
ize counties  of  the  state  of  Texas  and  to  hold  elections  in  them 
of  local  officers.  This  created  some  excitement,  but  produced  no 
practical  result.  Almost  at  the  same  time,  however,  it  became  an 
' '  open  secret ' '  that  the  President  and  his  cabinet  at  Washington 
desired  the  people  of  California  and  New  Mexico  to  organize  state 
governments  without  delay,  in  order  by  their  own  action  to  settle 
the  question  of  slavery  within  their  borders,  and  thus  allay  the 
great  national  excitement  on  the  subject  and  relieve  the  adminis- 
tration of  responsibility. 

A  convention  was  consequently  called,  which  met  on  May  15, 
and  adopted  a  state  constitution,  which,  among  other  things,  pro- 
hibited slavery.  This  was  submitted  to  the  people  on  the  20th 
of  June,  and  adopted  with  substantial  unanimity.  At  the  same 
time  state  officers  and  a  legislature  were  elected,  Henry  Connelly 
being  chosen  governor,  and  Manuel  Alvarez,  lieutenant-governor. 
The  legislature  met  on  July  1,  1850,  and  elected  as  United  States 
senators  Francis  A.  Cunningham  and  Richard  H.  Weightman. 
Had  this  taken  place  a  few  months  before,  perhaps  it  might  have 


U.  S.  PEOVISIONAL  GOVERNMENT         189 
Ballot  at  First  State  Election,  1850 


190  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

been  ratified  by  Congress,  and  New  Mexico  have  taken  her  place 
in  the  sisterhood  of  states ;  but,  while  Mr.  Weightman  was  on  his 
way  to  Washington  to  claim  his  seat  in  the  senate  the  famous  com- 
promise measures  of  1 850'  were  passed,  one  feature  of  which  was 
the  act  organizing  New  Mexico  as  a  territory.  This  was  passed 
September  9.  It  created  the  state  of  California,  and  it  erected 
New  Mexico  into  a  territory,  with  boundaries  including  the  areas 
now  embraced  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  southern  Colorado, 
and  with  a  form  of  government  similar  to  the  other  territories. 
The  act  also  provided  for  setting  at  rest  all  claims  of  Texas  on 
any  part  of  the  United  States. 

During  the  preceding  period  the  territory  had  been  presided 
over  by  governors,  who  were  appointed  by  the  military  authori- 
ties, or  who  were  themselves  officers  of  the  army;  Charles  Bent 
having  been  appointed  by  General  Kearny,  and  Donaciano 
Vigil,  who  was  appointed  secretary  by  Kearny,  succeeding  Gov- 
ernor Bent  on  the  assassination  of  the  latter.  In  1848,  the  chief 
authority  was  devolved  upon  the  commandant  of  the  military 
department.  Colonel  J.  M.  Washington,  being  the  first  of  such 
military  governors.  During  the  next  year  he  was  succeeded  by 
Colonel  John  Munroe. 

But,  under  the  Organic  Act  of  September  9,  1850,  the  territory 
had  regular  civil  officers  appointed  by  the  president.  The  first  of 
these  were  James  S.  Calhoun,  governor;  Hugh  N.  Smith,  secre- 
tary ;  Elias  P.  West,  United  States  attorney ;  and  John  G.  Jones, 
marshal.  The  judiciary  was  composed  of  Grafton  Baker,  chief 
justice;  and  John  S.  Watts  and  Horace  Mower,  associate  jus- 
tices. Under  these  officers,  a  regular  civil  government  was  inau- 
gurated on  the  third  of  March,  1851,  and  a  legislative  assembly 
was  elected,  which  met  in  June,  Padre  Martinez,  of  Taos,  being 
elected  president  of  the  Council,  and  Theodore  Wheaton,  a  promi- 
nent lawyer,  speaker  of  the  House. 

From  that  time,  the  form  of  government  was  continued  without 
any  material  change;  the  principal  additional  officer  heing  the 
surveyor-general,  appointed  under  an  act  of  1855,  which  dele- 
gated to  him  large  powers  in  determining  questions  relating  to 
Spanish  and  Mexican  land  grants. 


CHAPTEE  XXI 

The  Territorial  Period,  1851-1912 

This  period  of  sixty  years  will  be  considered  briefly  under  the 
administrations  of  the  successive  governors ;  but  for  convenience 
of  treatment  and  clearness  of  understanding,  the  Texan  Invasion 
of  1862,  and  the  Struggle  for  Statehood  will  constitute  separate 
chapters.  Matters  connected  with  churches,  schools,  and  news- 
papers are  also  arranged  in  groups  in  a  distinct  chapter,  in  order 
to  present  a  connected  view  of  each  subject. 


James  S.  Calhoun  (1851) 

was  the  first  governor  of  New  Mexico  appointed  by  the  President 
under  the  regular  territorial  government.  Pie  was  inaugurated 
on  March  3, 1851,  and  at  the  same  time  William  S.  Allen  became 
secretary,  Grafton  Baker,  John  S.  Watts,  and  Horace  Mower, 
justices  of  the  supreme  court,  and  Elias  P.  West,  United  States 
attorney. 

Governor  Calhoun  was  already  a  resident  of  Santa  Fe,  as  he 
had  been  Indian  Agent  for  New  Mexico  since  July,  1849,  and  had 
shown  himself  a  most  intelligent  and  diligent  official.  Soon  after 
his  inauguration  he  called  an  election  for  the  first  territorial  legis- 
lature, and  that  body  convened  in  the  governor's  palace  on  June 
2.  It  held  a  second  session  on  December  1  of  the  same  year.  An- 
tonio Jose  Martinez,  of  Taos,  (Padre  Martinez),  was  president  of 
the  Council  at  the  first  session,  and  Juan  Felipe  Ortiz  (Vicar 


192  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

General  Ortiz^),  at  the  second.  Theodore  D.  Wheaton,  a  lawyer 
of  Taos,  was  speaker  of  the  House. 

Governor  Calhoun's  position  was  anything  but  a  bed  of  roses. 
The  situation  was  new,  and  the  limits  of  the  authority  of  the  civil 
and  the  military  officials  not  yet  closely  determined.  Troubles 
with  the  Indians,  Navajos  and  Apaches,  were  of  constant  occur- 
rence. The  governor  was  also  Indian  Agent  and  endeavored  to 
keep  the  peace  and  prevent  depredations.  Col.  E.  Y.  Sumner, 
in  military  command  of  the  department,  had  different  Adews  of 
the  method  of  procedure.  The  governor  graphically  explains  his 
position  in  an  official  report,  in  which  he  says  he  is  ''without  a 
dollar  in  our  territorial  treasury,  without  munitions  of  war,  with- 
out authority  to  call  out  our  militia,  without  the  cooperation  of 
the  military  authorities."  Finally  he  started  on  a  journey  to 
Washington  in  May,  1852,  and  died  on  the  route.  Meanwhile 
Colonel  Sumner  built  Ft.  Defiance,  Ft.  Union,  and  other  army 
posts. 

The  secretary  left  the  territory  even  before  the  governor.  When 
the  latter  departed  he  endeavored  to  appoint  Manuel  Alvarez  as 
acting  governor  during  his  absence,  but  this  was  manifestly  ille- 
gal, and  John  Greiner,  firstly  as  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs 
and  afterwards  as  secretary,  was  in  executive  charge  until  the 
arrival  of  the  new  governor  appointed  by  President  Fillmore. 


William  Carr  Lane  (1852) 

Governor  Lane  had  been  an  army  surgeon  and  afterwards 
mayor  of  St.  Louis.  He  arrived  in  1852,  endeavored  to  pacify  the 
Indians  by  supplying  them  with  rations,  issued  a  proclamation 
claiming  the  Mesilla  valley  as  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  became  a 
candidate  for  Congress  before  election  but  failed  of  success,  a 


THE  TEEEITOEIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      193 

small  majority  being  given  to  Jose  Manuel  Gallegos  (Padre  Gal- 
legos  of  Albuquerque).  Soon  after  this  disappointment  he  left 
for  the  east,  leaving  W.  S.  Messervy,  who  had  been  appointed 
secretary,  in  charge  of  the  territory,  and  never  returned. 


David  Meriwether  (1853) 

The  next  governor  was  David  Meriwether,  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Pierce  at  the  beginning  of  his  administration  in  1853.  He 
was  a  Kentuckian  by  residence  but  had  had  a  very  varied  and 
romantic  experience  in  the  far  west,  and  in  1819  had  been  cap- 
tured by  the  Spaniards  and  confined  as  a  prisoner  for  some  time 
in  the  palace.  He  made  an  intelligent,  practical  governor,  but 
during  his  administration  of  four  years  there  was  incessant  war 
with  the  surrounding  Indian  tribes.  Incursions  and  depredations 
by  the  Navajos  on  the  west,  the  Utes  and  Jicarilla  Apaches  on 
the  north,  the  Mescaleros  on  the  east,  and  the  Gila  and  Mogollon 
Apaches  on  the  south,  were  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  the  mili- 
tary was  kept  busy  nearly  all  of  the  time  in  expeditions  against 
the  various  tribes,  including  a  number  of  battles  in  which  the  In- 
dians were  generally  defeated  and  dispersed  for  the  time. 

During  this  administration  the  Gadsden  Purchase  was  made 
from  Mexico,  by  which  a  strip  of  territory  from  the  Kio  Grande 
to  the  Colorado  river  was  added  to  the  domain  of  the  United 
States. 

A  notable  event  of  this  period  was  the  killing  of  F.  X.  Aubrey 
by  Maj.  R.  H.  Weightman,  in  the  store  of  the  Mer cures  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Plaza  in  Santa  Fe.  This  occurred  on  August 
18,  1854,  just  after  Aubrey  had  returned  from  California,  in 
twenty-nine  days  from  San  Jose  to  Peralta,  demonstrating  the 
feasibility  of  a  railroad  route  to  the  Pacific.    He  had  previously 


13 


194  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

achieved  celebrity  by  his  record-breaking  ride  on  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail,  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject. 

In  1854  Congress  made  an  appropriation  of  $50,000  for  the 
construction  of  the  capitol,  this  being  in  addition  to  the  $20,000 
appropriated  in  1850,  with  which  the  foundation  was  laid.  The 
structure  was  now  carried  up  one  and  a  half  stories  and  thus  re- 
mained, roofless,  until  it  was  utilized  for  the  exposition  of  1883 
and  subsequently  completed.  In  1860,  $60,000  was  appropriated 
for  its  completion,  but  the  delegate  in  Congress  relinquished  this 
in  consideration  of  the  exemption  of  New  Mexico  from  the  war 
tax  of  1862. 

W.  W.  H.  Davis,  who  had  previously  been  United  States  at- 
torney, was  secretary  during  much  of  Governor  Meriwether's 
term,  and  had  a  number  of  important  documents  in  the  ''Ar- 
chives" translated,  and  wrote  several  books  on  New  Mexican 
history.  He  was  acting-governor  for  nearly  a  year  before  the 
arrival  of  the  next  governor,  who  was 


Abraham  Rencher  (1857) 

appointed  by  President  Buchanan  at  the  beginning  of  his  presi- 
dential term,  and  who  served  for  four  years.  He  was  a  lawyer 
who  had  been  a  member  of  Congress  and  also  in  the  diplomatic 
service. 

During  this  administration  the  Indian  difficulties  continued, 
especially  with  the  Navajos.  In  1859  and  1860  nearly  300  citizens 
were  killed  by  the  Indians,  and  on  February  7, 1860,  they  made  a 
bold  attempt  to  capture  Ft.  Defiance  itself.  This  was  followed 
by  an  active  campaign  by  Colonel  Canby,  which  ended  in  victory 
and  a  temporary  cessation  of  hostilities. 

The  United  States  land  office  was  established  at  this  time  under 


THE  TERRITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      195 

a  congressional  act  of  May  24,  1857,  and  the  Santa  Fe  office  was 
opened  on  November  25, 1858.  The  surveyor  general's  office  had 
been  established  in  1854,  and  William  Pelham  continued  as  its 
head  until  1860.  Besides  the  usual  business  of  this  office  the 
surveyor  general  of  New  Mexico  had  placed  in  his  charge  the 
investigation  of  titles  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  land  grants. 

On  the  last  Monday  in  December,  1859,  the  Historical  Society 
of  New  Mexico  was  organized,  with  Col.  John  R.  Grayson  as 
president.  Chief  Justice  Kirby  Benedict  delivering  the  opening 
address. 


Henry  Connelly  (1861) 

Governor  Connelly  was  a  man  of  large  experience  in  the  south- 
west, and  the  first  citizen  of  New  Mexico  to  be  appointed  gover- 
nor under  the  organic  act,  and  the  only  one  during  forty-four 
years.  He  was  originally  a  physician  in  Kentucky,  but  went  to 
Chihuahua  in  1828,  and  was  activelj^  engaged  in  coiiunercial  pur- 
suits for  many  years.  At  the  close  of  the  Mexican  war  he  settled 
in  Santa  Fe,  and  lived  there  and  at  Peralta  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  was  thus  well  equipped  bj'-  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience for  the  duties  of  the  governorship.  He  was  appointed 
governor  by  President  Lincoln  early  in  1861,  and  was  re-appoint- 
ed in  1865,  continuing  in  office  until  his  death  in  July,  1866. 

At  the  time  of  the  attempted  state  government  in  1850,  Dr. 
Connelly  was  elected  governor  at  the  election  held  in  June,  over 
Tomas  C.  de  Baca.  He  was  absent  in  the  east  at  the  time  and 
the  contest  in  favor  of  the  legality  of  the  state  government  was 
vigorously  conducted  by  Lieutenant-Governor  Manuel  Alvarez, 
as  acting-governor. 

At  the  time  of  the  appointment  of  Governor  Connelly,  Miguel 


196  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

A.  Otero  was  appointed  secretary,  through  the  influence  of 
Judge  Watts,  notwithstanding  that  Otero  had  sympathized  with 
the  southern  leaders  before  the  actual  breaking  out  of  the  war. 
His  actual  loyalty  justified  his  selection,  but  he  only  served  for 
a  short  time,  and  after  another  brief  term  of  James  H.  Holmes, 
W.  F.  M.  Arny,  of  Kansas,  was  appointed,  and  became  a  promi- 
nent figure  in  New  Mexican  affairs  until  his  death. 

The  most  important  events  of  Governor  Connelly's  administra- 
tion were  those  connected  with  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  nar- 
rated in  another  chapter.  Throughout  the  whole  trouble  he  was 
an  ardent  Union  man  and  his  large  acquaintance  gave  him  much 
influence  in  preventing  defections  from  the  Union  cause. 

On  February  24,  1863,  Congress  passed  the  act  establishing 
the  territory  of  Arizona  out  of  the  western  portion  of  New  Mex- 
ico, and  on  December  31  of  that  year  the  newly  appointed  officials 
of  Arizona  organized  its  territorial  government  at  Navajo 
Springs,  just  within  its  boundaries,  and  afterwards  established 
the  capital  at  Prescott.  Col.  J.  Francisco  Chaves  was  designated 
as  the  escort  of  the  officers  of  the  new  territory. 


Robert  B.  Mitchell  (1866) 

Governor  Mitchell  was  appointed  by  President  Johnson  shortly 
after  the  death  of  Governor  Connelly.  He  was  a  man  of  varied 
experience,  a  lawyer  in  Ohio,  a  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War, 
an  active  participant  in  the  free  state  movement  in  Kansas,  an 
official  in  that  territory,  a  colonel  and  finally  a  brigadier  general 
in  the  Union  army.  He  became  governor  of  New  Mexico  in  1866, 
and  served  until  1869.  His  administration  was  a  troublous  one 
through  its  entire  period.  He  seemed  to  follow  in  many  ways 
the  example  of  the  president  who  appointed  him.    He  was  out  of 


THE  TEREITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      197 

harmony  with  the  legislature,  and  exercised  the  veto  power,  which 
was  then  absolute,  unsparingly.  The  legislature  appealed  to  Con- 
gress and  the  organic  act  was  amended  by  providing  that  a  veto 
could  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  He  invoked  criticism 
by  long  absences  from  the  territory,  and  the  legislature  went  so 
far  finally  as  to  ask  for  his  removal. 

The  joint  resolutions  of  the  two  houses  of  the  legislature  fill 
nearly  five  pages,  and  denounce  the  governor  for  almost  every 
offense,  and  especially  for  illegally  removing  officials  and  en- 
deavoring to  appoint  others  to  fill  their  places.  About  the  same 
time  they  passed  complimentary  resolutions,  commending  Secre- 
taries Henry  H.  Heath  and  "W.  F.  M.  Amy. 

On  December  15,  1867,  occurred  the  tragic  death  of  Chief  Jus- 
tice Slough  (the  Colonel  Slough  of  the  Colorado  Volunteers)  at 
the  hands  of  Col.  W.  L.  Rynerson  in  the  office  of  the  Exchange 
hotel,  then  called  the  ' '  Fonda, ' '  in  Santa  Fe. 


William  A.  Pile  (1869) 

On  the  accession  of  General  Grant  to  the  presidency  he  ap- 
pointed, as  governor,  William  A.  Pile,  of  Missouri,  afterwards 
minister  to  Venezuela. 

It  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  history  that  this  gentleman,  who 
is  uniformly  well  spoken  of  by  those  best  acquaiated  with  his 
character,  should  be  known  in  New  Mexico  principally  from  his 
supposed  connection  with  the  sale  of  a  portion  of  the  Spanish 
archives  for  use  as  wrapping  paper.  Probably  that  connection 
was  very  slight ;  but  it  is  certain  that  quantities  of  old  documents 
were  sold  or  given  away  to  merchants  for  that  purpose,  and  that 
an  indignation  meeting  was  held  in  Santa  Fe  to  protest  against 
such  vandalism.    Part  of  the  papers  were  restored  to  the  terri- 


198  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

torial  library  by  the  merchants,  and  others  are  occasionally  found 
in  private  houses  to  this  day.  Ira  M.  Bond  was  territorial  li- 
brarian at  the  time,  and  insists  that  the  affair  was  greatly  ex- 
aggerated and  that  no  papers  of  real  value  were  destroyed. 

During  his  administration  the  soldiers '  monument  in  Santa  Fe 
was  completed,  and  Lincoln  and  Colfax  counties  were  created, 
telegraphic  communication  with  the  east  was  opened  on  July  8, 
1869,  and  the  First  National  Bank  of  Santa  Fe,  the  oldest  in  the 
entire  southwest,  was  chartered  and  organized. 


Marsh  Giddings  (1871) 

Under  appointment  by  President  Grant,  Marsh  Giddings  suc- 
ceeded Governor  Pile  in  the  executive  office  in  1871,  and  contin- 
ued as  governor  until  his  death  on  June  3,  1875. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  event  in  his  administration  was 
the  earnest  effort  made  to  secure  statehood  and  the  holding  of  a 
constitutional  convention  for  that  purpose,  as  elsewhere  narrated. 

In  1871,  John  Martin,  a  soldier  of  both  wars,  discovered  water 
in  the  center  of  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  at  Martin's  Well  or  Ale- 
man,  which  was  of  such  importance  to  the  public  that  the  legis- 
lature specially  recognized  the  benefit  thereby  conferred. 

In  August,  1872,  the  Second  National  Bank  of  Santa  Fe  was 
established. 

In  1873,  the  United  States  military  road  from  Santa  Fe  to 
Taos  was  completed.  This  has  ever  since  been  the  usual  line  of 
travel,  being  the  road  up  the  Rio  Grande  through  Santa  Cruz, 
Los  Luceros,  La  Joya,  and  Rinconada,  and  it  took  the  place  of 
the  old  route  much  farther  east.  The  principal  expense  of  the 
road  was  in  the  canons  of  the  Rio  Grande  below  and  above  Em- 
budo.  In  1861  Congress  appropriated  $15,000  for  this  road,  and 
subsequently  $25,000  for  its  completion. 


THE  TEEEITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      199 

In  1874  a  new  land  office  was  established  at  Mesilla  with  a 
district  embracing  half  of  the  territory. 

On  the  death  of  Governor  Giddings,  Secretary  William  G. 
Ritch  acted  as  governor  for  about  two  months,  until  the  inaugu- 
ration of  Governor  Axtell.  Secretary  Ritch  was  appointed  to 
that  position  by  General  Grant  in  1873,  and  held  the  office  for 
twelve  consecutive  years.  He  had  served  in  the  war  as  lieutenant 
and  adjutant,  and  in  "Wisconsin  as  state  senator.  He  was  a  very 
progressive  man,  especially  devoted  to  public  education.  To  the 
establishment  of  an  effective  public  school  system  he  gave  his 
best  efforts  for  years  against  persistent  and  organized  opposition, 
with  admirable  courage  and  excellent  effect. 


Samuel  B.  Axtei^l  (1875) 

Governor  Axtell  was  appointed  by  President  Grant  and  inau- 
gurated as  governor  on  July  30,  1875.  He  had  been  a  member 
of  Congress  from  California  for  two  terms,  and  was  governor  of 
Utah  at  the  time  of  his  appointment  to  New  Mexico.  He  was  a 
man  of  strong  convictions,  tenacious  of  his  opinions,  entirely 
fearless,  and  of  the  positive  character  which  makes  warm  friends 
and  bitter  enemies.  He  was  vigorously  supported  by  the  majority 
of  the  dominant  political  leaders  and  as  vigorously  denounced  by 
their  opponents. 

During  his  official  term  the  Lincoln  county  war  between  rival 
cattlemen  and  their  adherents  was  a  prominent  feature.  The  con- 
tending factions  were  named  after  Murphy  and  McSwain,  who 
were  the  leading  cattle  owners  of  that  section.  In  this  "war"  a 
number  of  men  were  killed  and  the  whole  southeast  of  the  terri- 
tory was  involved.  A  somewhat  similar  condition  existed  in  Col- 
fax county  where  the  cowboy  element  was  strong.  Great  excite- 
ment was  occasioned  in  1875  by  the  murder  of  Rev.  P.  J.  Tolby,  a 


200  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Methodist  minister,  on  the  road  from  Cimarron  to  Elizabethtown ; 
and  an  attempt  was  made  to  connect  Governor  Axtell  with  that 
outrage.  Party  feeling  ran  very  high  between  what  was  called 
the  ' '  Santa  Fe  King ' '  and  it  local  adherents,  and  their  opponents 
headed  by  Frank  Springer,  a  prominent  lawyer.  Numerous 
charges  against  the  governor  were  forwarded  to  Washington  and 
special  agents  were  sent  from  there  to  investigate.  In  the  calmer 
judgment  of  history  each  side  misjudged  the  other,  but  the  result 
was  a  determination  by  the  national  administration  to  change  the 
principal  New  Mexico  officials,  especially  the  governor  and 
United  States  attorney.  Accordingly  in  the  fall  of  1878  Gover- 
nor Axtell  was  superseded  by  Gen.  Lew  Wallace,  and  Col.  Sidney 
M.  Barnes,  of  Kentucky,  was  appointed  United  States  attorney 
in  place  of  Thomas  B.  Catron,  who  had  resigned. 

Subsequently,  in  1882,  Governor  Axtell  was  appointed  chief 
justice,  and  performed  the  duties  of  that  office  to  the  general  sat- 
isfaction of  the  people. 

The  vigorous  attempt  to  secure  statehood,  made  in  Congress 
by  Hon.  S.  B.  Elkins,  having  failed  in  1875  as  elsewhere  narrated. 
New  Mexico  suffered  a  considerable  loss  of  territory  by  the  change 
of  the  northern  boundary  whereby  the  new  state  of  Colorado  ac- 
quired everything  north  of  the  37th  parallel  of  latitude.  This 
change  in  area  took  place  July  4,  1876,  when  Colorado  was  finally 
admitted. 


Lewis  Wallace  (1878) 

Governor  Wallace  was  appointed  by  President  Hayes  with 
instructions  to  restore  tranquillity  in  the  territory  as  soon  as 
possible  and  to  reform  any  abuses  he  might  find  prevailing.  He 
was  inaugurated  October  1,  1878.    He  was  a  man  of  ability  and 


202  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

reputation,  having  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  lieutenant,  and 
as  major-general  and  corps  commander  in  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion. He  was  not  in  harmony  with  the  local  leaders  of  the  re- 
publican party  who  had  generally  been  friends  of  Governor 
Axtell,  and  some  friction  was  experienced  during  the  legislature 
of  1880  which  was  the  only  session  held  while  he  was  governor. 
He  superseded  the  treasurer  who  had  been  in  office  many  years 
and  nominated  for  attorney  general  Eugene  A.  Fiske,  who  was  re- 
jected by  the  legislative  council.  After  the  adjournment  of  the 
legislature  he  attempted  to  appoint  Mr.  Fiske,  which  was  clearly 
illegal  under  the  organic  act,  and  was  so  held  by  the  court. 

The  first  special  business  undertaken  by  Governor  Wallace  was 
the  pacification  of  the  Lincoln  county  troubles.  With  this  object, 
at  great  personal  risk,  he  visited  Lincoln  itself  and  had  several 
interviews  with  Billy  the  Kid  and  other  active  participants.  The 
war  was  not  concluded,  however,  until  the  killing  at  Ft.  Sumner, 
on  the  14th  of  July,  1881,  of  the  "Kid,"  whose  real  name  was 
William  H.  Bonney,  by  Pat  Garrett,  sheriff  of  Lincoln  county. 

During  his  administration,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
railroad  entered  the  territory,  affording  direct  connection  with 
the  east.  This  line  reached  Otero  station,  near  the  present  town 
of  Raton,  in  February,  1879 ;  Las  Vegas  on  July  1 ;  Santa  Fe  on 
February  9,  1880 ;  and  Albuquerque  on  April  22,  1880.  On  its 
completion  to  the  capital  a  brilliant  celebration  was  held,  the 
last  four  spikes  being  driven  by  the  governor,  chief  justice,  com- 
manding general,  and  chairman  of  the  coanty  commission.  An 
address  of  congratulation  was  delivered  by  Chief  Justice  L.  B. 
Prince.  The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railroad  was  built  south 
from  Antonito  as  far  as  Espaiiola.  The  advance  of  the  railroads 
stimulated  all  kinds  of  enterprises ;  street  railways,  modern  hotels, 
gas  works,  and  large  commercial  houses  were  constructed ;  mining 
enterprises  covered  the  territory;  there  was  increased  develop- 
ment in  Grant  county  and  the  location  of  hundreds  of  claims  at 
Cerrillos,  White  Oaks,  Socorro,  and  other  promising  camps. 
General  incorporation  acts  for  municipalities,  religious  and  char- 
itable societies,  and  foreign  corporations  were  enacted.    On  Feb- 


THE  TEERITORIAL  PEEIOD,  1851-1912      203 

ruary  15,  the  legislature  passed  an  aet  establishing  a  Bureau  of 
Immigration,  which  organized  April  15  with  L.  B.  Prince  as  its 
first  president.  Many  churches  and  schools  were  established,  as 
will  appear  elsewhere. 

On  December  27,  1880,  the  Historical  Society  of  New  Mexico 
was  reorganized  and  incorporated,  the  original  society  organized 
in  1859  having  suspended  operations  during  the  war.  Hon.  W.  G. 
Ritch  was  the  prime  mover  in  the  reorganization  and  the  first 
president.  In  1882  L.  B.  Prince  succeeded  Governor  Ritch  as 
president  and  has  continued  as  such  to  the  present  time.  For 
thirty  years  this  society  has  had  its  home  in  the  palace  at  Santa 
Fe  under  national  and  territorial  authorities,  and  has  accumu- 
lated and  preserved  a  collection  of  New  Mexican  antiquities  and 
historic  material  absolutely  invaluable,  and  which  but  for  its 
faithful  and  continued  efforts  would  have  been  scattered  long  ago 
and  be  incapable  of  collection  at  any  cost  at  the  present  time. 

The  event  which  most  closely  identifies  Governor  Wallace  with 
New  Mexico  was  the  completion  of  his  famous  book  Ben  Eur,  by 
the  writing  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  chapters  in  his  bed 
room  back  of  the  executive  office  in  the  palace,  which  has  since 
been  known  as  the  '*Ben  Hur  Room''  and  has  become  a  Mecca 
for  tourists. 

On  the  election  of  General  Garfield  as  president.  Governor  Wal- 
lace applied  for  a  foreign  diplomatic  position  and  was  appointed 
minister  to  Turkey. 


Lionel  A.  Sheldon  (1881) 

Governor  Sheldon  was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  soon 
after  his  inauguration  and  assumed  office  May  15,  1881.  He  was 
a  personal  friend  of  the  president,  having  been  lieutenant-colonel 


204  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

of  the  Ohio  regiment  of  volunteers  of  which  General  Garfield 
was  colonel.  After  the  war  he  served  three  times  in  Congress 
from  Louisiana. 

Governor  Sheldon  unfortunately  began  his  gubernatorial  ca- 
reer by  antagonizing  older  citizens  and  officials  who  would  other- 
wise have  been  friendly,  and  thereby  injured  his  influence.  But 
he  succeeded  finally  in  what  appeared  to  be  his  special  desire, 
which  was  the  building  of  the  penitentiary  to  accommodate  the 
increasing  number  of  condemned  criminals.  In  the  legislature  of 
1884  a  bill  was  also  passed  for  the  erection  of  a  capitol  in  Santa 
Fe,  and  a  commission  was  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

Governor  Sheldon  gave  much  attention  to  organizing  and 
strengthening  the  militia  as  a  protection  not  only  against  a  law- 
less element  that  had  entered  the  territory  in  connection  with  the 
construction  of  the  Southern  Pacific  and  other  railroads,  but  also 
against  the  Indians  who  were  still  disposed  to  be  aggressive. 
These  measures  were  successful  and  beneficial  to  the  people.  His 
term  of  office  covered  a  period  of  active  business  and  speculation 
in  New  Mexico.  The  territory  was  covered  with  mining  camps, 
each  of  which  believed  itself  a  second  Leadville.  The  rapid  con- 
struction of  railroads  added  largely  to  the  general  feeling  of  busi- 
ness enthusiasm.  The  only  drawback  was  the  intensity  of  politi- 
cal feeling  which  caused  unfortunate  divisions  among  its  people. 
On  the  13th  of  July,  1882,  the  Santa  Fe  board  of  trade  was  or- 
ganized and  incorporated,  being  the  first  commercial  organization 
in  the  southwest. 

In  1883  there  was  held  in  Santa  Fe  a  great  historic  celebration 
called  the  ''Tertio  Millenial,"  which  exceeded  both  in  its  scope 
and  realization  anything  of  the  kind  ever  attempted  in  America. 
The  regular  programme  covered  thirty-three  days,  during  which 
each  important  Indian  pueblo  and  tribe  in  turn  was  represented 
by  forty  of  its  people,  who  exhibited  their  ceremonials  and  dances 
in  the  genuine  costumes  required  by  their  religion  or  custom.  The 
celebration  began  with  a  three  days '  historic  pageant  of  gorgeous 
magnificence.  This  really  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
and  while  a  financial  failure,  was  well  worth  all  that  it  cost. 


THE  TERRITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      205 

Edmund  G.  Ross  (1885) 

The  democratic  party  having  regained  power  by  the  election  of 
Grover  Cleveland  as  president,  Edmund  G.  Ross  was  appointed 
governor,  and  assumed  office  June  15,  1885.  It  had  been  so  long 
since  the  advent  of  a  democratic  governor  (Governor  Rencher 
was  the  last,  twenty-five  years  before),  that  his  friends  considered 
the  new  official  as  a  special  deliverer  from  oppression,  and  re- 
membering the  Pueblo  tradition  that  Montezuma  would  some  time 
appear  at  break  of  day  to  bless  his  people.  Governor  Ross  took 
the  oath  of  office  exactly  at  sunrise,  in  the  palace,  Governor  Shel- 
don having  been  roused  from  his  slumbers  for  that  purpose.  Un- 
fortunately these  high  hopes  were  doomed  to  disappointment,  as 
his  administration  was  quite  barren  of  result. 

Governor  Ross  was  a  man  of  strong  opinions  and  courage,  of 
the  temperament  that  rather  rejoices  in  opposition  and  spurns 
the  idea  of  being  influenced  by  numbers  or  circumstances.  In 
early  life  he  left  Wisconsin  to  take  part  in  the  free  state  move- 
ment in  Kansas  and  was  an  active  participant  in  the  Border  War 
of  those  days.  In  1861  he  naturally  entered  the  Union  army,  did 
active  duty  as  captain  and  major,  and  made  an  enviable  record. 
From  1867  to  1871  he  was  United  States  senator,  filling  the  unex- 
pired term  of  Senator  James  H.  Lane.  It  was  then  that  he  met 
the  crisis  of  his  life,  in  the  impeachment  trial  of  President  John- 
son. Party  feeling  was  at  fever  heat  and  the  republicans  of 
Kansas  were  practically  unanimous  in  opposition  to  Johnson. 
Senator  Ross  believed  that  a  political  conviction  would  revolu- 
tionize the  government  and  utterly  destroy  it,  and  in  the  face  of  a 
storm  of  opposition  he  had  the  courage  to  cast  the  decisive  vote 
which  ended  the  impeachment.  His  enemies  attributed  this  to 
every  bad  motive,  including  corruption,  and  he  left  office  with 
scarcely  a  friend.  As  governor  he  had  the  same  disregard  for 
public  opinion,  for  conciliation  and  success  that  he  showed  in  the 
senate.  Absolutely  honest  and  well-meaning  but  proud  of  his 
firmness,  he  antagonized  his  own  party  as  well  as  the  republican 
legislature,  and  was  soon  powerless  to  accomplish  anything. 
Party  spirit  ran  high,  and  as  between  the  governor  and  the  legis- 


206  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

lature  each  seemed  bent  on  embarrassing  the  other.  The  judi- 
ciary however  was  still  independent.  When  Governor  Ross 
attempted  to  repeat  the  mistake  made  by  Governor  Wallace,  by 
removing  an  official  duly  confirmed  by  the  council,  in  violation  of 
law,  the  democratic  courts  were  as  prompt  in  rebuking  this  as- 
sumption of  arbitrary  power  by  a  governor  of  their  own  party  as 
the  republican  courts  in  1880  had  been  in  the  case  of  a  republican 
governor.  The  idea  that  the  executive  could  interfere  with  the 
judiciary  or  legislative  branch  of  the  government  was  not  yet 
entertained. 

The  laws  of  1889,  so  far  as  the  executive  action  thereon  is  con- 
cerned, are  a  curiosity.  Under  other  governors  there  may  be  one 
or  two  laws  during  each  session  passed  over  a  veto,  and  one  or 
two  becoming  valid  ''by  limitation"  without  the  signature  of  the 
governor.  In  1889  there  were  in  all  145  laws  enacted.  Of  the 
first  45,  Governor  Ross  approved  26,  three  were  passed  over  his 
veto,  and  16  became  valid  ' '  by  limitation. ' '  The  relations  between 
the  governor  and  the  legislature  being  more  and  more  strained, 
we  find  that  of  the  last  100  laws  he  approved  only  21,  nine  being 
passed  over  vetoes  and  70  becoming  valid  mthout  action  by  the 
governor.    This  is  a  unique  record. 

Three  important  laws  were  passed  by  the  legislature,  one  estab- 
lishing a  University,  an  Agricultural  College,  a  School  of  Mines, 
and  an  Insane  Asylum;  Chapter  30,  establishing  a  financial  sys- 
tem for  the  territory ;  and  Chapter  99,  providing  for  a  constitu- 
tional convention.  Chapter  30  was  the  first  attempt  to  introduce 
any  system  into  the  finances  of  New  Mexico  and  stands  as  a  monu- 
ment to  the  good  sense  of  Pedro  Perea  who  introduced  it.  Chap- 
ter 99  was  an  intelligent  attempt  to  obtain  statehood,  and  is 
further  treated  of  elsewhere.  The  act  establishing  four  terri- 
torial institutions  was  good  in  its  object  but  unfortunate  in  its 
method.  It  was  a  log-rolled  measure,  passed  by  uniting  enough 
local  interests  to  control  a  majority  of  votes,  and  therefore  with- 
out any  consideration  of  general  benefit  and  proper  selection  of 
locality.  An  insane  asylum  should  obviously  be  in  a  low  altitude 
favorable  to  nervous  diseases.    A  separate  school  of  mines  was 


THE  TERRITOEIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      207 

entirely  unnecessary  as  the  needed  instruction  should  be  part  of 
the  university  work.  The  agricultural  college  with  its  experiment 
station  should  be  in  the  center  of  the  territory  and  at  an  average 
altitude,  in  order  to  be  of  use  to  all ;  instead  of  which  it  was  lo- 
cated in  the  extreme  south  and  lowest  altitude,  so  that  its  experi- 
ments are  no  guide  for  nine-tenths  of  New  Mexico.  Lastly,  by 
having  the  university  and  agricultural  college  together,  each 
would  be  benefited  and  much  unnecessary  duplication  of  instruc- 
tion and  experiments  avoided. 

On  January  9,  1886,  at  a  meeting  of  lawyers,  presided  over  by 
Hon.  H.  L.  "Waldo,  the  Bar  Association  of  New  Mexico  was  or- 
ganized, with  19  members  and  the  following  officers:  President, 
William  A.  Yincent ;  Vice  Presidents,  L.  B.  Prince,  W.  H.  White- 
man,  and  J.  D.  Bail;  Secretary,  F.  W.  Clancy;  Treasurer,  Eu- 
gene A.  Fiske.  Since  then  it  has  continually  increased  in  mem- 
bership and  influence,  and  has  become  a  recognized  power  in 
legislation.    Its  membership  is  now  over  a  hundred  and  fifty. 


L.  Bradford  Prince  (1889) 

The  election  of  President  Harrison  returned  the  republicans 
to  power  and  L.  Bradford  Prince  was  appointed  governor.  Being 
the  first  appointee  in  many  years  taken  from  permanent  residents 
of  the  territory,  the  choice  created  much  enthusiasm  and  the  in- 
auguration on  April  17,  on  the  west  side  of  the  capitol,  was  the 
most  brilliant  that  New  Mexico  had  seen.  From  long  legislative 
experience  in  New  York,  an  active  judicial  career  in  New  Mexico, 
and  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  local  conditions.  Governor 
Prince  was  saved  from  mistakes  otherwise  almost  unavoidable, 
and  was  enabled  to  subordinate  politics  to  material  interests  and 
thus  secure  important  benefits  for  the  people. 


208  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Public  education  was  the  most  important  consideration.  The 
University,. Agricultural  College,  and  School  of  Mines  were  im- 
mediately built  and  opened,  by  boards  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  of  which  he  was  an  active  member ;  and  during  his  adminis- 
tration the  normal  institutions  at  Silver  City  and  at  Las  Vegas, 
and  the  Military  Institute  at  Roswell  were  established.  Even 
more  important  to  the  people  at  large  was  the  inauguration  of  a 
modern  public  school  system  for  the  whole  territory,  with  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  at  its  head.  Under  this 
system  the  cause  of  general  education  has  advanced  with  remark- 
able rapidity  down  to  the  present.  For  the  important  position 
of  superintendent,  the  governor  selected  Amado  Chaves,  a  man  of 
education  and  tact,  thoroughly  in  harmony  with  advanced  ideas 
and  methods.  The  native  New  Mexican  people  had  larger  recog- 
nition in  important  appointments  than  ever  before. 

A  convention  to  formulate  a  state  constitution  was  elected  in 
August  and  commenced  its  session  September  3,  1889.  Unfor- 
tunately, owing  to  dissatisfaction  with  the  apportionment  of 
members,  the  chairman  of  the  democratic  committee,  Mr.  Childers, 
advised  his  party  friends  to  take  no  part  in  the  election  and  con- 
sequently but  one  prominent  democrat.  Judge  L.  S.  Trimble,  par- 
ticipated in  the  convention,  and  very  few  advocated  the  excellent 
constitution  which  was  submitted  to  the  people.  The  result  was 
its  rejection  by  a  decisive  vote  and  a  long  delay  in  the  attain- 
ment of  statehood. 

The  most  pressing  matter  then  pending  in  New  Mexico  was 
the  settlement  of  its  land  grant  titles.  For  years  Congress  had 
been  importuned  to  take  action,  but  in  vain.  As  increased  immi- 
gration and  prosperity  were  impossible  under  this  incubus  of 
uncertainty,  the  governor  finally  appointed  a  committee  of  fifty 
to  go  to  Washington  and  endeavor  to  obtain  favorable  action. 
Twenty-five  actually  went,  paying  their  own  expenses.  They  ar- 
rived on  April  25,  1890,  and  remained  a  month,  with  the  gover- 
nor as  chairman.  They  appeared  before  congressional  commit- 
tees, cabinet  officers  and  the  president,  and  induced  the  latter  to 
send  a  special  message  to  Congress  on  the  subject  on  July  1.    The 


THE  TEREITORIAL  PERIOD,  18511912      209 

result  was  the  establishment  of  the  Court  of  Private  Land 
Claims  by  an  act  approved  March  3,  1891.  This  court  consisted 
of  seven  judges,  continued  in  existence  until  June  30,  1904,  and 
finally  settled  all  grant  titles  in  the  southwest  and  thus  gave  that 
section  a  chance  for  permanent  prosperity.  The  claims  confirmed 
amounted  to  2,051,526  acres,  and  those  rejected  reached  33,439,- 
493  acres. 

This  period  was  one  of  unusual  business  prosperity.  All  the 
principal  industries  of  the  territory  were  fostered  and  flourished. 
The  public  finances  were  very  satisfactory.  In  1890  the  terri- 
torial auditor  reported  a  surplus  of  $40,000  in  the  treasury, 
which  was  used  to  reduce  outstanding  indebtedness.  The  reduc- 
tion of  the  bonded  debt  of  the  territory  began  at  this  time, 
$30,000  of  penitentiary  bonds  being  paid  off  and  cancelled.  So 
high  was  the  credit  of  New  Mexico  that  the  territory  had  to  pay 
117  for  the  bonds  thus  paid  off,  as  they  had  a  number  of  years 
to  run. 

On  March  20,  1891,  after  the  adjournment  of  the  legislature, 
without  making  a  legislative  apportionment  based  on  the  new 
census,  Governor  Prince  proceeded,  in  accordance  with  law,  to 
make  such  apportionment  and  announced  the  same  by  proclama- 
tion. This  delicate  duty  was  so  fairly  and  equitably  performed 
that  the  apportionment  thus  made  continued  in  force  for  nearly 
sixteen  years,  without  a  word  of  objection  or  criticism.  On  May 
12, 1892,  the  beautiful  capitol  building  in  Santa  Fe  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  probably  of  incendiary  origin.  Almost  all  the  public 
documents  of  value  were  saved,  including  the  Spanish  and  Mexi- 
can archives.  The  governor's  office  was  transferred  to  its  old 
home  in  the  palace,  and  the  other  territorial  officials  found  tem- 
porary accommodations  until  the  completion  of  the  new  capitol 
in  1900. 


14 


210  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

William  T.  Thornton  (1893) 

President  Harrison  having  failed  of  re-election  and  Grover 
Cleveland  being  again  president  of  the  United  States,  a  demo- 
crat was  naturally  to  be  appointed  governor  in  the  spring  of 
1893,  and  the  choice  fell  on  William  T.  Thornton,  who  had  been 
a  resident  of  New  Mexico  since  1877,  and  prominent  in  legisla- 
tive and  legal  affairs. 

Through  his  entire  administration  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
punishment  of  crime,  especially  of  murders,  which  had  become 
alarmingly  frequent,  often  in  connection  with  politics.  Two  of 
these  cases  were  especially  conspicuous,  that  of  Francisco  Chaves, 
sheriff  of  Santa  Fe  county,  and  of  John  Dougherty,  former  sher- 
iff of  Mora.  There  was  also  a  flagrant  murder  at  the  bridge  in 
Las  Vegas  and  the  mysterious  disappearance  of  a  man  named 
Silva  and  his  family  in  the  same  town.  Around  each  of  these 
cases  clustered  other  crimes  that  were  developed  as  investigation 
proceeded.  In  every  instance  the  guilty  parties  were  finally  dis- 
covered, and  the  vigor  of  the  prosecutions  did  much  to  stop  the 
wave  of  crime  that  seemed  flowing  over  the  territory.  Nineteen 
criminals  were  executed  during  the  four  years '  term,  and  a  large 
number  of  convictions  for  crimes  punishable  by  imprisonment 
were  obtained. 

Governor  Thornton  was  much  hampered  in  his  official  action 
by  the  jealousies  and  ambitions  of  many  of  the  leading  democrats, 
which  made  any  unity  of  action  impossible.  In  one  legislative 
council  three  democratic  members  were  candidates  for  the  same 
official  position,  and  each  insisted  on  immediate  appointment  as 
the  price  of  his  support.  While  he  was  absent  in  Washington  to 
prevent  presidential  interference  with  the  execution  of  the 
Chaves  murderers,  the  secretary  as  acting-governor  appointed  a 
number  of  important  officials  and  had  them  confirmed  before  the 
governor's  return.  Everyone  admitted  his  good  intentions  and 
appreciated  his  energy,  but  he  could  never  rely  on  loyal  support. 

The  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  was  held  in  1893  and 
New  Mexico  was  very  creditably  represented  there  by  a  terri- 
torial building  and  a  fine  display  of  its  varied  products.     It 


THE  TEEEITORIAL  PEEIOD,  1851-1912      211 

gained  a  valuable  reputation  by  exhibiting  the  finest  oats  in  the 
United  States  and  the  best  wheat  in  the  entire  world,  and  receiv- 
ing prizes  accordingly. 

As  an  outgrowth  of  work  for  this  Exposition,  a  unique  organiza- 
tion, known  as  the  Woman's  Board  of  Trade,  was  formed  in 
Santa  Fe  in  1903.  From  that  time  it  has  done  the  principal 
civic  work  in  that  city.  It  has  entire  charge  of  the  Plaza,  at- 
tends to  the  public  charities,  manages  the  cemetery  which  it  has 
greatly  improved,  and  has  erected  a  fine  library  building  in 
which  it  conducts  a  free  circulating  library. 

In  1895  the  legislature  passed  an  act  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
capitol  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  sum  of 
$75,000  was  appropriated  for  the  purpose,  together  with  the  use 
of  old  capitol  material  and  of  convict  labor. 


Miguel  A.  Otero  (1897) 

The  appointment  of  Governor  Otero  was  as  much  a  surprise 
to  himself  as  to  others.  He  wxnt  to  Washington  as  a  candidate 
for  marshal,  but  that  position  not  being  available,  the  application 
was  changed  to  secretary.  President  McKinley  was  anxious  to 
appoint  as  governor  his  old  friend  and  neighbor  in  Canton,  Ohio, 
George  H.  Wallace,  then  sojourning  in  Santa  Fe,  and  it  was 
practically  decided  that  Wallace  should  be  governor  and  Otero 
secretary,  when  strong  opposition  was  made  to  the  Wallace  ap- 
pointment on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  a  bona  fide  citizen  of 
New  Mexico.  The  president  then  concluded  to  reverse  the  posi- 
tions, with  the  idea  that  the  two  officials  would  work  together  and 
the  result  be  practically  all  that  he  desired.  This  plan  proved 
a  failure  from  the  beginning,  and  was  definitely  ended  by  the 
death  of  Secretary  Wallace,  who  was  succeeded  by  James  W. 
Raynolds. 


212  HISTOKY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

The  most  important  event  in  this  administration  was  the  par- 
ticipation of  New  Mexicans  in  the  Spanish- American  War,  Im- 
mediately after  the  proclamation  of  the  president  calling  for 
125,000  volunteers,  there  was  a  rush  of  New  Mexicans  to  enter 
the  military  service.  Five  times  the  number  called  for  could 
easily  have  been  obtained.  The  only  difficulty  experienced  was 
from  the  number  of  applicants  for  every  official  position. 

The  quota  assigned  to  New  Mexico  consisted  of  four  troops  of 
a  regiment  commanded  by  Leonard  Wood  as  colonel  and  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  as  lieutenant  colonel,  and  universally  known  as 
the  Rough  Riders ;  and  they  were  mustered  into  the  service  with 
great  promptitude  in  Santa  Fe.  The  commissioned  officers  were 
as  follows: 

Major,  Henry  B.  Hersej^ 
Troop  E  —  Captain,  Frederick  Muller, 

First  Lieutenant,  William  R.  Griffin, 
Second  Lieutenant,  Sherrard  Coleman. 
Troop  F  —  Captain  Maximiliano  Luna, 

First  Lieutenant,  Horace  W.  Weakley, 
Second  Lieutenant,  William  E.  Dame. 
Troop  G  —  Captain,  W.  H.  H.  Llewellyn, 

First  Lieutenant,  eTohn  Wesley  Green, 
Second  Lieutenant,  David  L.  Leahy. 
Troop  H  —  Captain,  George  Curry, 

First  Lieutenant,  William  H.  Kelly, 
Second  Lieutenant,  Charles  L.  Ballard. 

The  regiment  was  brought  together  at  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
and  from  there,  on  May  29,  1898,  forwarded  to  Tampa  en  route 
to  Cuba.  One  company  had  to  remain  in  Florida,  and  the  troop 
of  Captain  Curry  encountered  that  bad  fortune.  No  one  regretted 
this  loss  of  the  opportunity  for  danger  and  glory  more  than 
themselves.  The  others  embarked  on  June  14,  and  on  the  22d 
landed  on  the  island  near  Santiago.  The  rest  of  their  career  is 
national  history,  and  no  brighter  page  is  to  be  found  than  that 
which  chronicles  the  gallantry  of  the  New  Mexico  troops  at  Las 
Guasimas,  and  San  Juan  Hill.    According  to  the  colonel's  own 


THE  TEREITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      213 

statement,  the  first  standards  planted  on  the  summit  were  those 
of  the  three  troops  from  the  Sunshine  State. 

Under  the  second  call  for  volunteers,  a  battalion  of  four  com- 
panies marched  forth  from  New  Mexico.  They  were  mustered 
into  the  service  in  July,  1898,  and  remained  in  camp  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Georgia  for  a  considerable  time,  but  had  no  oppor- 
tunity actually  to  meet  the  enemy.  This,  however,  should  not 
detract  from  their  reputation,  as  they  were  always  not  only 
ready  but  anxious  for  active  service. 
Their  officers  were  as  follows : 
Company  E,  Albuquerque.       Captain,  John  Borradaile, 

First  Lieutenant,  L.  H.  Cham- 

berlin. 
Second  Lieutenant,   L.   A.   Mc- 
Crea. 
Company  F,  Las  Vegas.  Captain,  W.  C.  Read, 

First  Lieutenant,  W.  0.  Morri- 
son, 
Second  Lieutenant,  A.  Luntzel. 
Company  G,  Santa  Fe.  Captain,  William  Strover, 

First  Lieutenant,  Page  B.  Otero, 
Second  Lieutenant,  J.  P.  S.  Men- 
nett. 
Company  H,  Las  Cruces.         Captain,  A.  B.  Fall, 

First  Lieutenant,  J.  W.  Catron. 
Second  Lieutenant,  N.  E.  Bailey. 
During  this  administration  the  territory  continued  to  increase 
in  population,  especially  by  the  settlement  of  the  eastern  portion 
and  the  Estancia  valley,  which  had  been  considered  sections  only 
adapted  to  grazing,  but  which  under  the  impro^'ed  system  of  dry 
farming  were  rapidly  covered  with  homesteads.  There  were  con- 
stant attempts  to  secure  statehood,  as  will  be  more  fully  stated 
in  a  separate  chapter. 

The  most  important  legislation  was  the  passage  by  Congress  of 
the  act  of  June  21,  1898,  championed  by  Delegate  H.  J.  Fergus- 
son,  donating  to  the  territory  large  areas  of  public  lands  for  edu- 


214  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

cational  and  other  purposes,  in  advance  of  statehood;  this  being 
in  partial  reparation  for  the  injustice  done  by  Congress  in  con- 
tinuing to  deprive  New  Mexico  of  self-government. 

At  the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition  at  Omaha  in  1898  and  the 
great  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  the 
territory  was  officially  represented  and  made  very  creditable  ex- 
hibitions of  its  resources  and  products. 

In  1900  the  new  capitol  was  completed,  in  a  very  satisfactory 
and  creditable  manner;  and  on  June  4  it  was  formally  opened, 
with  an  address  by  Ex-Governor  Prince. 

This  administration  itself  was  essentially  a  political  one  and 
introduced  methods  to  enforce  and  perpetuate  its  power  unknown 
in  New  Mexico  for  many  years,  the  result  being  a  compact  po- 
litical organization  which  included  officials  of  every  character. 
These  methods  and  the  expense  necessarily  entailed  by  them 
naturally  provoked  opposition,  and  appeals  to  Washington  in 
the  form  of  charges  were  frequent.  By  organized  action  and  the 
skilful  use  of  personal  influences,  however,  the  governor  con- 
tinued in  office  until  the  beginning  of  1906,  when  the  president 
appointed  Mr.  Hagerman  in  his  place. 


Herbert  J.  Hagerman  (1906) 

Governor  Hagerman  was  a  comparatively  young  man,  whose 
experience  in  public  life  consisted  of  a  brief  service  as  assistant 
secretary  of  legation  in  St.  Petersburg  under  Ambassador  Hitch- 
cock, now  secretary  of  the  interior.  His  father,  J.  J.  Hagerman, 
was  the  largest  property  owner  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  and  had  done 
very  much  for  the  development  of  that  section. 

The  new  governor  was  of  liberal  education  and  high  ideals, 
and  had  every  desire  to  conduct  a  creditable  administration  and 
inaugurate  for  himself  a  successful  public  career.  It  was  under- 
stood that  he  was  appointed  with  the  definite  idea  of  reforming 


THE  TEREITOEIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      215 

alleged  abuses.  But,  lacking  in  experience  and  so  self-confident 
as  to  deprecate  advice,  his  position  was  difficult  if  not  dangerous, 
as  he  was  naturally  looked  upon  with  distrust  if  not  enmity  by 
the  adherents  of  the  old  organization  which  his  appointment  dis- 
placed. 

Friction  soon  arose  and  his  enemies  watched  for  an  opportun- 
ity to  dislodge  the  governor  whom  they  could  not  control.  Before 
very  long  this  presented  itself  in  an  act  which  though  well-in- 
tended and  practically  right,  was  yet  technically  incorrect.  The 
*' organization"  pressed  this  advantage  both  in  New  Mexico  and 
Washington,  and  finally  induced  the  president  to  call  for  the 
governor's  resignation.  It  was  the  almost  universal  sentiment, 
that  in  its  manner  if  not  in  its  substance,  this  action  of  the  im- 
pulsive president  was  ungenerous  and  unjust  toward  his  own  ap- 
pointee, who  had  incurred  enmity  by  following  his  instructions, 
and  whose  lack  of  experience  was  as  well  known  before  his  ap- 
pointment as  aftrwards. 


George  Curry  (1907) 

The  new  governor  was  George  Curry,  Rough  Rider  captain, 
official  in  the  Philippines,  and  personal  friend  of  President 
Roosevelt,  who  assumed  office  on  August  8,  1907. 

Governor  Curry  had  always  been  a  democrat,  of  the  southern 
type,  and  had  held  many  offices  in  New  Mexico,  including  that 
of  president  of  the  legislative  council.  In  the  Spanish  "War  he 
had  been  a  captain  of  a  company  but  unfortunately  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  see  service  in  Cuba.  Afterwards  in  the  Philippines  he 
was  chief  of  police  in  Manila,  and  governor  of  Samar,  and  in  all 
positions  achieved  an  excellent  reputation.  He  was  a  worshipper 
of  Roosevelt,  and  at  the  time  in  question  called  himself  a  Roose- 
velt republican. 

As  governor  he  showed  marked  ability  in  conciliating  adverse 


216  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

interests,  was  amiable,  frank,  and  helpful,  and  untiring  in  en- 
deavoring to  make  the  office  useful  to  the  people.  He  took  much 
interest  in  securing  public  lands  for  the  territory,  in  promoting 
immigration,  and  in  good  roads,  and  was  indefatigable  in  visiting 
all  sections  of  the  territory  that  required  any  attention.  Ac- 
customed to  outdoor  life,  nothing  was  so  oppressive  as  office  work ; 
and  with  an  extremely  active  temperament  he  seemed  at  times 
almost  to  live  on  the  railroads  and  to  be  in  Washington  nearly 
as  much  as  Santa  Fe. 

It  was  over  these  Washington  trips  that  friction  iirst  arose  be- 
tween the  secretary  of  the  interior  and  the  governor,  and  this 
gradually  increased  until  the  president  in  November,  1909,  de- 
cided to  make  a  new  appointment  and  offered  the  position  to 
William  J.  Mills,  who  for  twelve  years  had  been  chief  justice  of 
New  Mexico.  The  appointment  of  Governor  Mills  was  confirmed 
on  December  20,  but  in  accordance  with  the  formal  resignation 
of  Governor  Curry,  the  change  in  the  office  did  not  take  place 
till  March  1,  1910.  It  was  during  this  administration  that  the 
Spanish-American  Normal  School  at  El  Rito  was  founded,  in 
March,  1909. 


William  J.  Mills  (1910) 

Governor  Mills  came  to  the  gubernatorial  office  well  equipped 
for  its  duties.  He  had  legislative  experience  in  both  houses  of 
the  Connecticut  legislature,  and  had  been  chief  justice  of  New 
Mexico  since  1898.  This  experience  not  only  gave  facility  in 
disposing  of  most  administrative  questions  but  a  poise  and  tact 
which  smoothed  many  difficulties. 

Much  of  his  term  of  office  was  occupied  by  matters  connected 
with  the  transition  to  statehood.  On  June  20,  1910,  the  FiUabling 
Act  was  signed  by  the  president.     This  was  followed  by  the 


THE  TEREITOEIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      217 

preparations  for  the  election  of  a  constitutional  convention,  and 
that  election  itself  on  September  6.  The  governor,  chief  justice, 
and  secretary  constituted  a  commission  to  apportion  the  delegates 
among  the  respective  counties,  and  this  duty  was  performed  on 
June  28  and  the  election  proclamation  was  issued  the  next  day. 
The  convention  contained  100  delegates,  and  as  elected  consisted 
of  71  republicans  and  29  democrats.  Charles  A.  Spiess,  of  Las 
Yegas,  was  elected  president.  The  convention  met  on  October  3, 
1910,  was  in  session  till  November  21,  and  formulated  a  constitu- 
tion good  in  most  of  its  provisions,  but  not  containing  the  new 
theories  rife  at  the  time  and  then  called  ' '  progressive. ' '  The  sec- 
tion as  to  amendments  was  especially  objectionable  on  account  of 
the  difficulties  that  it  placed  in  the  way  of  future  constitutional 
changes.  The  constitution  was  very  satisfactory  in  guarding  with 
extreme  care  the  rights  of  Spanish-speaking  citizens. 

The  vote  of  the  people  on  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  was 
taken  on  January  21,  1911,  when  the  result  as  recorded  was 
31,742  in  favor  and  13,399  against.  While  this  is  not  an  ac- 
curate expression  of  the  people's  will,  because  unfortunately  in  a 
few  counties  over-zealous  friends  of  statehood  prevented  any 
ballots  against  the  constitution  being  circulated  or  cast,  yet  even 
with  a  liberal  calculation  of  the  votes  thus  suppressed,  the  ma- 
jority in  favor  of  the  proposition  was  many  thousands.  There 
was  much  discussion  and  delay  in  Congress,  but  finally  the  reso- 
lution admitting  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  was  passed,  and  signed 
by  the  president  on  August  21.  The  only  proviso,  so  far  as  New 
Mexico  was  concerned,  was  that  at  the  first  election  the  people 
should  vote  on  the  proposition  to  facilitate  the  making  of  amend- 
ments to  the  constitution.  As  the  congressional  resolution  pro- 
vided that  this  question  should  be  voted  on  separately,  by  a  ballot 
printed  on  blue  paper,  the  question  was  commonly  called  "The 
Blue  Ballot." 

The  final  acquisition  of  the  long-fought-for  boon  of  statehood 
brought  new  duties  to  the  governor,  upon  whom  Jt  devolved  to 
fix  the  date  of  the  first  state  election  and  give  notice  thereof  by 
proclamation.     This  was  accordingly  done,  the  day  selected  be- 


218  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

ing  November  7.  Instantly  political  activity  was  rife  throughout 
the  state,  everyone  desiring  to  take  part  in  the  first  state  election. 
With  many  it  was  the  first  opportunity  they  had  ever  had  to  vote 
for  a  governor  or  for  a  regular  member  of  congress. 

Both  parties  made  strenuous  efforts  to  carry  the  state  at  its 
first  election.  The  republican  convention,  confident  of  victory, 
met  at  Las  Vegas  on  September  28,  and  the  democratic  at  Santa 
Fe  on  October  2.  Had  wise  counsels  prevailed  at  Las  Vegas 
there  was  no  doubt  of  republican  success.  But  several  circum- 
stances weakened  the  chances  for  the  ticket  nominated.  The  in- 
sistence on  Hon.  H.  0.  Bursum  as  candidate  for  governor,  when 
he  had  evident  elements  of  weakness,  an  unfortunate  and  im- 
passioned address  raising  the  '*race  issue,"  by  Mr.  0.  A.  Larra- 
zola,  until  recently  a  democratic  leader,  and  the  arbitrary  manner 
in  which  the  remainder  of  the  ticket  was  dictated,  were  chiefly 
responsible  for  the  subsequent  defeat.  The  democratic  conven- 
tion was  less  confident,  and  perhaps  therefore  more  careful.  It 
nominated  William  C.  McDonald,  of  Lincoln  county,  for  gover- 
nor and  placed  two  progressive  republicans  on  the  ticket. 

The  succeeding  campaign  was  brief  but  vigorous,  and  the  num- 
ber of  "split"  tickets  cast  and  the  wide  difference  in  the  aggre- 
gate votes  of  the  leading  candidates,  show  that  the  people  cast 
their  first  state  ballot  with  a  care  and  study  most  commendable 
and  encouraging.  The  * '  blue  ballot ' '  amendment  received  a  much 
larger  majority  than  any  individual  candidate,  34,897  to  23,831, 
which  is  surprising,  because  as  a  rule  it  is  difficult  to  arouse  the 
interest  of  voters  in  an  abstract  proposition.  Of  the  principal 
officers,  the  democrats  elected  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
one  congressman,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secretary 
of  state,  and  treasurer ;  and  the  republicans  the  attorney  general, 
auditor,  one  congressman,  the  commissioner  of  public  lands,  and 
two  of  the  three  supreme  judges.    The  total  vote  cast  was  60,842. 

Nothing  now  remained  for  the  territorial  government  which 
had  existed  so  long  but  to  end  its  days  with  dignity  and  grace. 

On  January  6,  1912,  the  president  signed  the  proclamation 
admitting  New  Mexico  into  the  American  Union. 


THE  TEERITORIAL  PERIOD,  1851-1912      219 

On  January  15,  at  noon,  the  first  governor  of  the  state  of  New 
Mexico  took  the  oath  of  office,  and  the  territorial  authority,  which 
had  existed  for  over  sixty  years,  was  at  an  end.  The  ceremonies 
were  dignified  and  appropriate.  Governor  Mills  made  an  ad- 
dress, largely  a  review  of  the  past;  Governor  McDonald  took  the 
oath  which  made  him  the  chief  executive  of  the  state,  and  de- 
livered his  inaugural  address,  which  looked  to  the  future  and 
what  it  held  for  the  welfare  of  New  Mexico  and  its  people. 

The  flag  of  the  nation  waved  from  the  dome  of  the  capitol,  di- 
rectly over  the  actors  in  this  great  political  drama. 

The  band  burst  into  the  exultant  strain  of  patriotic  music. 

The  New  State  was  bom.    The  Territory  was  no  more. 

A  self-governing  People  began  their  career  and  their  history. 

The  Past,  with  the  finished  story  of  almost  four  centuries  of 
adventure,  of  trial,  of  achievement,  closed  its  book. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

The  Texan  Invasion  of  1862 

Once  and  once  only  since  the  American  occupation,  has  what 
may  be  called  civilized  warfare  invaded  the  territory  and  dis- 
turbed its  peace,  and  that  was  in  1862,  the  second  year  of  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion.  The  record  of  New  Mexico  in  that  war  is 
one  of  which  she  can  be  proud.  Although  her  population  was  al- 
most entirely  of  a  nationality  once  foreign,  and  had  had  scarcely 
any  communication  with  the  other  portions  of  the  country,  yet, 
when  the  shock  of  war  came,  it  was  found,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, loyal  to  the  Union.  This  was  especially  the  case  with  the 
native  population;  among  the  ^'Americans''  the  majority  were 
from  Missouri  and  neighboring  states  and  were  not  altogether  to 
be  depended  upon,  but  the  ''Mexican"  element  presented  an  al- 
most unbroken  front  to  the  enemy. 

During  the  winter  of  1861-2,  the  Confederate  leaders  arranged 
a  comprehensive  programme  of  campaign  for  the  far  west,  which 
was  intended  to  have  the  very  important  result  of  separating  the 
Pacific  states  from  the  rest  of  the  country,  and  finally  taking 
possession  of  them  with  their  long  line  of  sea-coast  and  wealth  of 
gold.  The  plan  was  to  send  an  army  northerly  from  Texas  to 
conquer  New  Mexico  and  to  take  possession  of  the  great  stores  of 
government  arms  and  munitions  at  Fort  Union,  and  then  to  pro- 
ceed into  Colorado,  thus  cutting  all  the  lines  of  communication 
between  the  east  and  the  far  west ;  and  afterwards  making  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Mormons  of  Utah,  whom  they  hoped  to  have  as 
allies,  and  with  them  march  to  California.  The  importance  of 
this  campaign  can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  for  it  was  intended 
not  only  to  secure  to  the  Confederacy  the  long  unguarded  coast- 
line, which  it  so  much  needed,  but  by  greatly  extending  its  terri- 


THE  TEXAN  INVASION  OF  1862  221 

toiy  to  give  it  vastly  increased  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  nations 
of  Europe. 

Mr.  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  when  secretary  of  war,  had  arranged 
for  the  betrayal  of  the  Union  troops  in  New  Mexico,  by  putting 
in  command  Colonel  W.  W.  Loring  and  George  B.  Crittenden, 
both  of  whom,  when  the  Rebellion  opened,  abandoned  their  trusts 
and  went  to  Texas  after  vainly  endeavoring  to  seduce  the  men 
under  their  command.  About  the  same  time  Alexander  M.  Jack- 
son, the  secretary  of  the  territory,  deserted  his  office  and  with- 
drew to  Texas. 

The  first  actual  military  operations  were  in  July,  1861,  wlien 
Lieutenant-Colonel  John  R.  Baylor,  marching  into  New  Mexico 
from  El  Paso,  occupied  Ft.  Bliss  and  took  possession  of  Mesilla. 
Ft.  Fillmore  was  the  first  important  army  post  north  of  Mesilla, 
being  forty  miles  from  El  Paso,  and  was  then  in  charge  of 
Maj.  Isaac  Lynde  with  over  400  Union  troops.  For  no  good  rea- 
son and  against  the  indignant  protests  of  his  loyal  officers  and 
men,  he  basely  abandoned  the  fort  on  July  27  and  soon  after 
ignominiously  surrendered  his  entire  command  to  Colonel  Baylor. 
In  an  official  report  he  attempted  to  justify  his  action,  but  for 
his  cowardice  or  treachery  he  was  dismissed  from  the  army  and 
there  is  little  doubt  of  his  disloyalty.  Maj.  James  Cooper  McKee, 
army  surgeon,  in  his  narrative  of  the  surrender  says  that  old 
soldiers  and  strong  men  wept  like  children  when  thus  compelled 
to  lay  down  their  arms. 

On  August  1  Colonel  Baylor  issued  a  proclamation  organizing 
a  new  territory  which  he  named  Arizona,  to  consist  of  all  the  part 
of  New  Mexico  south  of  the  34th  parallel  of  latitude,  as  a  portion 
of  the  Confederate  States,  providing  a  fundamental  law  for  its 
government,  and  announcing  himself  as  governor.  During  the 
fall  the  Texan  forces  were  gathered  at  El  Paso,  and  by  New  Ypr 
included  2,300  men,  commanded  by  Gen.  H.  H.  Sibley,  who  was 
another  officer  that  had  been  stationed  in  New  Mexico  and  aban- 
doned the  service  of  his  country  in  its  hour  of  need. 

On  December  20  General  Sibley  issued  a  proclamation,  skilfully 
worded  to  seduce  the  New  Mexican  people  from  their  allegiance 


222  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

to  the  Union,  and  also  offering  inducements  to  military  officers 
and  soldiers  to  desert  their  flag,  which  was  distributed  as  widely 
as  possible  but  with  little  or  no  effect. 

The  native  people  of  New  Mexico  with  very  few  exceptions 
were  thoroughly  loyal  to  the  Union  throughout  the  entire  war. 
The  territorial  legislature  authorized  Governor  Connelly  to  call 
out  the  whole  force  of  the  territory  for  the  protection  of  its  soil 
and  people,  and  the  governor  himself,  who  had  been  appointed 
from  among  the  old  residents  of  New  Mexico,  w^as  faithful  and 
active  in  his  endeavor  to  support  the  government.  At  the  close 
of  the  session  of  the  legislature  the  Council  and  House  issued  an 
address  to  the  people,  signed  by  Facundo  Pino,  president,  and 
J.  M.  Gallegos,  speaker,  and  dated  January  29,  1862,  calling  on 
them  in  most  stirring  and  patriotic  language  to  rally  to  the  de- 
fense of  the  country  against  the  invaders. 

On  the  defection  of  Colonel  Loring  in  1861,  General  Canby,  a 
brave  and  patriotic  officer,  was  placed  in  command  of  the  de- 
partment, with  Lieutenant-Colonel  Roberts  next  in  rank;  and 
under  them  in  the  spring  of  1862  were  900  men  all  told.  Two 
regiments  of  New  Mexico  volunteers  were  raised,  of  one  of  which 
Ceran  St.  Yrain  was  Colonel,  Kit  Carson,  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
J.  Francisco  Chaves,  major ;  the  other  being  commanded  by  Col. 
Miguel  Pino. 

The  Union  force  was  concentrated  at  Fort  Craig,  when  in 
February  the  Southern  army  under  General  Sibley,  about  2,500 
strong,  appeared  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Sibley  at- 
tempted to  gain  a  position  which  commanded  the  fort,  and  Canby 
endeavored  to  cut  oft*  the  enemy  from  a  water  supply,  the  various 
skirmishes  culminating  in  the  battle  of  Yalverde  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  on  February  21,. when  Canby 's  army  failed  in 
its  object  and  he  was  forced  to  re-cross  the  river  to  Fort  Craig. 
Sibley  then  marched  up  the  valley  and  occupied  Albuquerque; 
and  there  being  no  means  of  resistance  at  hand,  the  United 
States  officials  evacuated  Santa  Fe  on  March  3,  and  retired  to 
Fort  Union,  Sibley's  army  occupying  the  capital  a  w^eek  later. 

iMeanwhile,  Governor  Gilpin  had  sent  the  First  Regiment  of 


THE  TEXAN  INVASION  OF  1862  223 

Colorado  Volunteers,  under  Colonel  John  P.  Slough,  southward 
from  Denver  to  the  aid  of  the  threatened  territory;  and  after  a 
hard  march,  they  arrived  at  Fort  Union  on  March  11,  where  they 
were  thoroughly  armed  and  equipped,  and  whence  they  marched 
with  very  little  delay  along  the  old  trail  towards  Santa  Fe.  They 
were  joined  by  a  few  companies  of  regular  troops  that  had  been 
in  the  north  of  the  territory,  and  by  a  considerable  number  of 
volunteers,  and  on  the  20th  of  March  met  the  advancing  Con- 
federate army  at  Apache  Canon  or  Glorieta.  The  battle  fought 
here,  though  hardly  known  to  history,  was  the  decisive  conflict 
which  settled  the  result  of  the  war  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  coun- 
try. On  the  first  day  only  a  part  of  each  army  was  engaged,  and 
the  contest  though  stubborn  and  long  continued  was  indecisive. 

Early  in  the  next  morning,  Captain  Manuel  Chaves  led  four 
hundred  men  under  Major  J.  M.  Chivington  by  a  circuitous  and 
difficult  path  to  the  rear  of  the  Confederate  position.  In  the  main 
battle  which  was  fiercely  contested  and  which  lasted  for  five  hours, 
Sibley  succeeded  in  driving  the  Union  soldiers  back  some  dis- 
tance to  Koslowsky's  Ranch,  but  at  this  moment  Chivington  fell 
upon  the  rear  of  the  Confederate  force  and  destroyed  its  wagons 
and  supplies.  The  news  of  this  loss  demoralized  the  Texan  army, 
the  fate  of  the  day  was  changed,  and  Sibley  commenced  a  retreat 
southerly,  evacuating  Santa  Fe  on  April  8,  and  proceeding  down 
the  valley.  He  was  closely  followed,  and  was  greatly  embarrassed 
by  want  of  supplies ;  on  April  15,  at  Peralta,  he  was  attacked  by 
the  Union  forces  and  suffered  considerable  loss  and  was  forced 
to  retreat  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  El  Paso  to  avoid  capture.  At 
this  battle  of  Peralta  the  New  Mexican  company  commanded  by 
Maj.  Jose  D.  Sena  gained  special  credit. 

For  several  days  the  coMtending  armies  were  within  sight  of 
each  other,  on  opposite  sid«sof  the  river,  and  General  Canby  was 
criticized  for  not  pressing  hi^  advantage  vigorously  and  captur- 
ing the  retreating  Texans.  But  his  loyalty  and  skill  are  above 
question,  and  it  is  evident  that  he  was  well  content  to  have  the 
invaders  leave  the  territory,  without  incambering  himself  with 
the  care  of  prisoners  whom  he  had  no  means  to  support. 


224  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

This  ended  the  campaign,  and  indeed  was  the  end  of  the  war  in 
New  Mexico  so  far  as  organized  enemies  were  concerned.  In 
July,  the  first  detachments  of  the  ''California  Column,"  which 
had  marched  across  the  deserts  of  Arizona,  reached  Ft.  Thome, 
and  soon  after  the  main  body  under  Gen.  James  H.  Carleton  ar- 
rived at  Mesilla.  This  column  included  the  first  and  fifth  regi- 
ments of  California  infantry,  five  companies  of  the  first  Cali- 
fornia cavalry,  Company  B  of  the  second  California  cavalry,  and 
a  light  battery  of  U.  S.  artillery.  In  all  it  included  about  2,850 
men,  and  its  remarkable  march  across  the  desert  from  the  Pacific 
to  the  Rio  Grande  is  one  of  the  most  gallant  achievements  of  the 
entire  war. 

This  California  Column  as  a  whole  consisted  of  an  exceptionally 
fine  body  of  men  whose  presence  prevented  further  inroads,  if 
they  had  been  intended,  and  for  many  years  after  the  war  it  was 
still  represented  in  the  territory  by  prominent  and  substantial 
citizens  who  had  made  New  Mexico  their  home. 

The  alacrity  with  which  the  people  of  New  Mexico  flocked  to 
the  standard  of  the  Union  and  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  their 
country,  during  the  years  from  1861  to  1865,  will  always  be  a 
source  of  pride  to  the  Sunshine  State.  Less  than  fifteen  years 
had  elapsed  from  the  time  of  the  American  occupation  under 
General  Kearny  when  the  great  war  was  forced  upon  the  country. 
It  might  have  been  thought  that  the  time  was  too  short  for  the 
growth  of  a  general  spirit  of  American  patriotism  and  loyalty. 
But  the  actual  events  formed  the  best  answer  to  such  misgivings. 
The  soldiers  monument,  erected  by  order  of  the  three  legisla- 
tures immediately  succeeding  the  war,  in  the  center  of  the  Plaza 
at  Santa  Fe  fitly  commemorated  the  loyalty  and  bravery  of  those 
who  fell  in  defense  of  the  Union  in  the  various  battles  of  this 
New  Mexican  campaign  of  1862.  The  inscriptions  on  the  east, 
south,  and  west  sides  are  as  follows : 

East:  ''Erected  by  the  people  of  New  Mexico,  through  their 
Legislatures  of  1866-7-8.  May  the  IJnion  be  per- 
petual. ' ' 

South :     *  *  To  the  Heroes  of  the  Federal  Army  who  fell  at  the 


THE  TEXAN  INVASION  OF  3862  225 

battle  of  Valverde,  fought  with  the  rebels  February 
21,  1862." 
West :  ' '  To  the  Heroes  of  the  Federal  Army  who  fell  at  the 
battles  of  Canon  del  Apache  and  Pigeons  Rancho  (La 
Glorieta),  fought  with  the  rebels  March  28,  1862,  and 
to  those  who  fell  at  the  battle  fought  with  the  Rebels 
at  Peralta,  April  15,  1862." 

The  people  showed  themselves  as  loyal  as  any  in  the  nation. 
During  the  Rebellion  out  of  her  total  population  of  93,567  she 
sent  6,561  men  into  the  army.  The  value  of  that  service  to  the 
Union  cause  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  The  total  number  of 
volunteers  from  the  territories  now  comprising  the  six  states  of 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Washington,  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
Wyoming,  was  1,170.  Colorado  sent  but  4,903,  and  Nebraska, 
Oregon,  and  Nevada  taken  together  contributed  but  6,047,  being 
500  less  than  New  Mexico  alone.  In  fact,  the  official  statistics 
show  that  no  state  of  the  Union  contributed  such  a  percentage  of 
its  population  to  the  Union  army  as  did  New  Mexico.  Surely, 
this  is  a  record  of  which  her  children  can  be  proud. 

An  interesting  episode  connected  with  this  invasion  is  found 
in  the  fact  that,  when  the  American  officers  were  entirely  with- 
out funds,  owing  to  the  lack  of  rapid  communication  with  the 
east,  the  person  from  whom  they  secured  the  necessary  money  to 
meet  the  immediate  exigencies  of  the  army  was  the  governor  of 
the  pueblo  of  Isleta,  a  very  intelligent  and  fine  looking  Indian, 
named  Ambrosio  Abeyta.  He  was  considered  at  the  time  to  be 
the  wealthiest  Pueblo  Indian  in  the  territory;  and  without  any 
hesitation  he  furnished  the  American  paymaster  with  $18,000  in 
specie,  merely  taking  his  receipt  in  recognition  of  the  obligation. 
Years  passed  without  his  making  any  claim  upon  the  govern- 
ment for  this  amount,  as  he  imagined  that  it  would  be  returned 
without  request  on  his  part,  when  it  was  convenient  to  the  na- 
tional authorities.  But  after  waiting  twelve  years,  he  concluded 
to  make  a  trip  to  Washington  on  the  subject,  and  proceeded  there 
accompanied  by  his  nearest  friend,  Alejandro  Padilla,  who  was 
also  for  a  number  of  years  governor  of  Isleta,  and  by  John  Ward, 


226  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

at  one  time  United  States  Indian  agent.  It  is  gratifying  to 
know  that  through  the  personal  interest  of  General  Grant,  then 
president  of  the  United  States,  he  received  the  amount  so  gener- 
ously loaned  in  the  time  of  need,  with  the  thanks  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

Don  Amado  Chaves,  then  a  clerk  in  the  pension  office  at  Wash- 
ington, was  detailed  to  escort  the  two  patriotic  Indians  to  their 
home  in  New  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

Struggle  for  Statehood 

[This  chapter  is  condensed  from  the  book  entitled  The  Struggle 
for  Statehood,  by  the  author.  ] 

BEGINNING   OF    THE  STRUGGLE 

In  no  part  of  the  United  States  has  there  ever  been  such  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  for  self-government  as  in  New  Mexico.  In  no 
other  case  has  statehood  been  so  long  withheld.  Perhaps  nowhere 
in  history  is  there  such  a  series  of  failures,  in  what  at  the  time 
seemed  almost  certainty,  through  unlooked  for  and  often  insig- 
nificant causes. 

Statehood  was  almost  attained  in  1 850 ;  it  was  lost  by  a  hand- 
shake in  1875,  by  a  sudden  impetuous  word  in  1889,  by  a  shiver 
of  malaria  and  a  miscalculation  of  time  in  1894. 

The  struggle  for  statehood  began  almost  as  soon  as  the  Ameri- 
can occupation.  In  the  speeches  and  proclamations  of  Governor 
Kearny  language  was  used  which  aroused  hope,  if  it  did  not  give 
promise,  of  self-government.  In  the  first  address  in  front  of  the 
palace,  on  August  19,  1846,  he  announced  the  intention  to  ''es- 
tablish a  civil  government  on  a  republican  basis  similar  to  those 
of  our  own  States. ' ' 

The  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  was  finally  signed  early  in 
1848,  and  proclaimed  at  "Washington  on  July  4,  and  some  action 
regarding  the  newly  acquired  territory  was  anxiously  awaited. 
The  advice  of  the  president  was  that  the  people  should  ''live 
peacably  and  quietly  under  the  existing  government  for  a  few 
months"  until  Congress  could  act  deliberately  and  wisely. 

Hon.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  then  in  the  height  of  his  influence 
and  power  as  senator  from  Missouri,  was  greatly  interested  in  the 


228  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

condition  of  the  new  domain,  and  especially  of  New  Mexico. 
Under  date  of  August  28,  1848,  he  addressed  an  open  letter  to 
the  people  of  California  and  New  Mexico,  in  which  he  advised 
them  "to  meet  in  convention,  provide  for  a  cheap  and  simple 
government,  and  take  care  of  yourselves  until  Congress  can  pro- 
vide for  you." 

The  advice  of  Senator  Benton  was  quickly  followed.  New 
Mexico  was  without  any  legal  government,  since  the  Treaty  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo  had  ended  the  regime  of  military  occupa- 
tion, and  the  continuance  of  the  de  facto  military  authority  was 
but  a  temporary  make-shift  justifiable  by  the  peculiar  conditions. 
The  people  were  anxious  for  almost  any  form  of  government 
which  would  be  regular  in  form  and  civil  in  character. 

Under  call  from  Governor  Vigil,  a  convention  was  held  at 
Santa  Fe  on  October  10,  1848,  and  organized  by  the  election  of 
Antonio  Jose  Martinez,  of  Taos  (the  celebrated  Padre  Martinez), 
as  president.  Francisco  Sarracino,  who  had  been  governor  of 
New  Mexico  under  the  Mexican  regime,  in  1834,  Governor  Vigil, 
James  Quinn,  and  Juan  Perea  were  appointed  a  committee  to 
draft  a  memorial  to  Congress  expressing  the  views  of  the  con- 
vention. They  reported  a  form  of  petition,  which  was  unani- 
mously adopted,  which  looked  to  the  immediate  establishment  of 
a  territorial  government. 

Nothing  resulted  from  the  action  of  this  convention,  and  the 
people  continued  to  be  very  restless  under  the  irregular  authority 
of  the  military  commanders.  They  were  divided  into  two  parties, 
one  anxious  for  statehood,  and  the  other  believing  that  a  regular 
territorial  organization  was  all  that  could  be  obtained  and  that 
therefore  their  efforts  should  be  bent  in  that  direction. 

First  State  Convention 

In  the  spring  of  1849,  James  S.  Calhoun,  afterwards  the  first 
governor  under  the  organic  act,  was  sent  to  New  Mexico  as  In- 
dian agent,  but  with  semi-official  instructions  to  favor  the  organi- 
zation of  a  state  government.  In  this  he  was  actively  aided  by 
Manuel  Alvarez,  Angney,  Pillans,  etc.,  while  Ceran  St.  Vrain, 
Judge  Houghton,  Carlos  Beaubien,  etc.,  favored  a  territorial  form 


STEUGGLE  FOE  STATEHOOD  229 

of  government.  Subsequently  all  parties  united  in  the  desire  for 
a  constitutional  convention,  and  an  important  meeting  was  held 
in  Santa  Fe  on  April  the  20,  1850,  where  resolutions  to  that 
effect  were  adopted,  and  Colonel  Munroe,  then  military  governor, 
was  requested  to  issue  a  proclamation  calling  for  an  election  of 
delegates. 

This  he  did  in  April,  1850,  and  a  regular  constitutional  con- 
vention was  elected,  and  commenced  its  session  on  May  15,  1850. 
James  H.  Quinn  was  elected  president  of  the  convention.  The 
convention  sat  for  ten  days  and  succeeded  in  formulating  a  con- 
stitution which  all  concede  to  be  an  admirable  instrument.  The 
two  features  which  naturally  attract  most  attention  are  the  clear 
declaration  against  slavery  in  the  new  state,  and  the  appreciation 
shown  of  the  value  of  public  education.  Besides  the  section  of 
the  constitution  forever  prohibiting  slavery  in  New  Mexico,  there 
was  a  strong  paragraph  on  that  subject  in  the  accompanying  ad- 
dress, showing  that  slavery  had  always  been  the  curse  of  the  com- 
munities in  which  it  existed.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that 
this  first  constitutional  convention  in  New  Mexico,  in  which 
native  New  Mexicans  composed  over  ninety  per  cent  of  the  mem- 
bership, took  this  high  ground  and  maintained  it  courageously, 
although  by  so  doing  they  were  placing  in  jeopardy  their  own 
right  to  self-government. 

On  May  28,  Colonel  Munroe,  the  military  governor,  issued  his 
proclamation  calling  for  an  election  on  the  adoption  of  the  con- 
stitution to  be  held  on  June  20,  and  also  a  vote  on  a  separate 
ballot  for  governor  and  state  officers.  There  was  no  real  contest 
over  the  constitution,  which  seems  to  have  been  universally  ap- 
proved ;  the  vote  in  favor  of  its  adoption  being  8,371  against  39 
opposed.  But  for  state  and  local  officers  there  was  the  usual 
political  contest.  The  candidates  for  governor  and  lieutenant  or 
vice-governor  on  one  ticket  were  Henry  Connelly,  a  well-known 
merchant  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  and  Manuel  Alvarez,  for  many 
years  United  States  consul  at  Santa  Fe;  while  opposed  to  them 
were  Tomas  Cabeza  de  Baca  and  Ceran  St.  Vrain.  A  few  of  the 
ballots  used  at  this  first  state  election  are  still  in  existence,  in  the 
collection  of  the  New  Mexico  Historical  Society,  and  are  written 


230  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

on  paper  of  nniform  size.  Connelly  and  Alvarez  were  elected 
by  a  considerable  majority. 

The  legislature  met  on  the  4th  of  July  and  continued  in  session 
over  a  week.  It  elected  Francis  A.  Cunningham  and  Richard  H. 
Weightman,  United  States  senators ;  made  various  appointments, 
ordered  an  election  for  local  officials  in  August,  and  proceeded  to 
enact  general  legislation.  This  was  entirely  contrary  to  the  lan- 
guage of  Governor  Munroe's  proclamation,  and  assumed  that  the 
state  was  actually  established,  and  its  government  fully  organ, 
ized,  without  any  congressional  action. 

A  controversy  immediately  arose  between  Alvarez,  acting  as 
state  governor  while  Connelly  was  absent  in  the  east,  and  Colonel 
Munroe,  the  military  and  civil  governor  of  the  territory.  Both 
were  able  men  and  sustained  their  respective  positions  ^dth 
vigor.  However,  any  real  conflict  was  avoided,  until  the  news 
arrived  by  the  slow  mails  across  the  plains  that  Congress  had 
passed  the  so-called  Compromise  measures  of  1850,  which  settled 
the  whole  matter. 

Under  their  provisions  California  was  admitted  as  a  free  state ; 
New  Mexico  and  Utah,  covering  all  the  remaining  area  acquired 
from  Mexico,  were  made  into  territories,  with  no  mention  of 
slavery;  Texas  abandoned  her  claim  on  New  Mexico  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  received  a  large  compensation  therefor. 

The  next  formal  action  looking  towards  statehood  was  early  in 
1866,  when  the  legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  governor 
to  call  a  constitutional  convention,  to  be  elected  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  March  and  to  meet  in  the  city  of  Santa  Fe ;  the  constitu- 
tion formulated  to  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people  on  the 
fourth  Monday  in  June.  Apparently  nothing  of  a  practical 
nature  was  accomplished  under  this  law. 

On  February  3,  1870,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  providing 
for  an  election  to  be  held  on  the  first  Monday  in  October  of  that 
year  for  the  purpose  of  submitting  a  state  constitution  and  elect- 
ing the  state  officers  and  legislature  provided  therein,  but  nothing 
seems  to  have  resulted  from  this  attempt  to  secure  self-govern- 
ment. 


STRUGGLE  FOR  STATEHOOD  231 

To  remedy  this  failure,  the  succeeding  legislature  took  up  the 
subject  early  in  the  session  and  passed  a  bill  which  was  approved 
by  the  governor  on  February  1,  1872,  entitled  "An  Act  provid- 
ing for  a  General  Election  for  the  Purpose  of  Submitting  to  a 
Vote  of  the  People  a  State  Constitution  and  State  Officers. ' ' 

The  constitution  that  was  thus  submitted  was  printed  in  a 
pamphlet  of  forty-seven  pages  and  was  a  comprehensive  and  well 
arranged  document,  creditable  to  those  who  prepared  and  adopt- 
ed it. 

On  the  day  after  the  election  the  Daily  New  Mexican  said 
*'the  election  yesterday  passed  off  very  quietly,  only  about  half 
of  the  vote  being  polled."  The  next  day  there  appeared  in  the 
New  Mexican  an  editorial  article,  evidently  inspired  by  Governor 
Giddings,  which  gave  a  reason  or  rather  an  excuse  for  letting 
the  whole  subject  drop. 

So  this  attempt  at  statehood,  which  occupied  the  attention  of 
two  legislatures,  and  caused  a  constitution  to  be  prepared, 
printed,  approved  by  the  legislature,  and  submitted  to  the  people 
at  a  special  election  held  solely  for  that  purpose,  died  without  any 
good  cause ;  and  another  of  the  unfortunate  accidents  which  have 
retarded  the  progress  of  New  Mexico  was  added  to  the  list. 

Congressional  Action 

While  these  proceedings  had  been  taken  in  New  Mexico,  on 
almost  every  available  occasion.  Congress  had  been  no  less  active 
in  considering  the  subject. 

At  almost  every  session  a  bill  for  the  admission  of  New 
Mexico  was  introduced,  generally  reported  favorably  in  the  House, 
and  more  or  less  considered,  but  without  any  definite  result. 

In  1869  an  attempt  was  made,  though  not  by  New  Mexicans, 
to  transform  the  territory  into  a  state  called  Lincoln;  but  this 
project  was  ultimately  defeated  in  the  senate. 

In  the  40th  Congress,  Delegate  J.  Francisco  Chaves  made  a 
vigorous  and  eloquent  speech  in  favor  of  statehood  and  in  de- 
fense of  the  people  against  unjust  criticism. 

In  the  43d  Congress  (1873-5)  the^enabling  act  was  introduced 


232  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

^  by^Hon.  Stephen  B.  Elkins,  then  delegate  from  New  Mexico,  and 
on  the  21st  of  May,  1874,  he  delivered  a  carefully  prepared 
speech  on  the  bill,  which  contained  the  best  collection  of  facts 
and  arguments  on  the  subject  that  had  ever  been  presented  to 
Congress.  The  bill  passed  the  House  by  the  remarkable  vote  of 
160  to  54  and  was  sent  to  the  senate  for  concurrence.  In  that 
body  it  finally  passed  on  February  24,  1875,  by  the  decisive  ma- 
jority of  32  to  11,  with  a  slight  amendment.  It  was  then  that 
the  series  of  misadventures  which  had  accompanied  all  the  at- 
tempts to  secure  New  Mexican  statehood  from  the  beginning 
culminated  in  the  incident  which  has  become  historic  as  the  "El- 
kins handshake,"  and  again  dashed  the  cup  of  success  from  the 
very  lips  of  the  people  of  the  territory.  "When  the  bill  was  re- 
turned to  the  House,  after  passing  the  senate  with  amendments, 
but  ten  days  of  the  session  remained,  and  the  difficulty  was  to  get 
the  bill  before  the  House  for  action  within  this  brief  and  busy 
time.  To  suspend  the  rules  required  a  two-thirds  vote,  and  this 
was  necessary  if  the  bill  was  to  be  considered  at  all. 

Just  at  this  time,  Hon.  Julius  C.  Burroughs,  of  Michigan,  made 
a  powerful  speech  on  political  subjects,  in  which  he  characterized 
the  Rebellion  and  those  engaged  in  it  in  plain  terms  —  which  at 
that  period,  on  account  of  its  allusions  to  the  war,  was  called  a 
''bloody  shirt"  speech.  Mr.  Elkins,  who  had  been  conversing 
with  friends  in  the  lobby,  had  not  heard  a  word  of  the  speech,  but 
happened  to  re-enter  the  chamber  just  as  Mr.  Burrouglis  had 
concluded  and  was  receiving  the  congratulations  of  a  crowed  of 
members  about  him.  Filled  with  his  spirit  of  cordiality,  Mr. 
Elkins  joined  the  group  and  shook  hands  with  the  speaker  with 
characteristic  vigor.  This  was  observed  by  a  number  of  soutliern 
-members  whose  feelings  had  been  much  excited  by  the  speech, 
and  they  instantly  concluded  that  they  would  lend  no  aid  to  the 
passage  of  the  New  Mexico  bill  which  it  was  understood  would 
bring  Mr.  Elkins  speedily  to  the  senate.  The  delegate  did  what 
he  could  in  the  brief  interval  to  repair  the  damage,  but  a  sufficient 
number  of  former  supporters  from  Georgia  and  Alabama  refused 
to  be  placated,  to  make  it  impossible  to  obtain  the  two-thirds 
vote  necessary;  and  so  the  enablins:  act  was  lost. 


STRUGGLE  FOE  STATEHOOD  233 

In  the  succeeding  Congress  (the  44th)  Mr.  Elkins  again  se- 
cured the  introduction  of  the  enabling  act  for  New  Mexico,  and 
it  passed  the  senate  during  its  first  session,  on  March  10,  1876, 
by  the  strong  vote  of  35  to  15.  In  the  house  of  representatives 
it  was  reported  favorably  by  the  committee  on  territories,  and 
was  on  the  calendar,  awaiting  action  at  the  time  of  the  final 
adjournment. 

After  these  virtual  defeats,  although  in  no  case  was  there  an 
actual  vote  adverse  to  New  Mexico,  and  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
Elkins  as  delegate,  no  active  efforts  looking  to  statehood  were 
made  for  several  years. 

Early  in  the  session  of  the  50th  Congress,  which  met  in  De- 
cember, 1887,  a  bill  was  introduced  "To  provide  for  the  forma- 
tion and  admission  into  the  Union  of  the  States  of  Washington, 
Dakota,  Montana  and  NSw  Mexico."  Accompanying  this  bill 
was  a  very  voluminous  report,  or  series  of  reports,  covering  145 
pages  and  containing  much  information  and  many  contradictory 
opinions  regarding  the  four  territories  affected  by  it.  The  mi- 
nority report,  presented  by  Mr.  Strable  of  Iowa,  attracted  much 
attention,  and  aroused  great  indignation  in  New  Mexico,  on  ac- 
count of  its  violent  opposition  to  our  admission  to  statehood,  and 
the  bitter  attack  on  the  territory  and  its  people. 

The  subject  was  discussed  at  length,  both  in  and  out  of  Con- 
gress, and  the  result  was  the  elimination  of  New  Mexico  and  the 
admission  of  the  two  Dakotas,  of  Washington,  and  Montana. 

On  the  6th  day  of  January,  1890,  Mr.  Springer,  of  Illinois, 
introduced  a  bill  ''To  enable  the  people  of  Arizona,  Idaho,  New 
Mexico,  and  Wyoming,  to  form  constitutions  and  State  govern- 
ments and  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union,"  etc. 

In  this  case,  again,  the  southwest  was  neglected  and  the  north- 
west was  favored ;  for  before  the  passage  of  the  bill  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  though  by  far  the  oldest  of  the  four  territories 
named,  and  New  Mexico  being  also  the  most  populous,  were 
eliminated  from  it.  They  were  thus  left  in  the  territorial  condi- 
tion, while  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  with  a  combined  population  less 
than  that  of  New  Mexico  alone,  were  admitted. 

In  the  52d  Congress  (1891-3),  Mr.  Joseph  again  introduced  an 


234  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

enabling  act,  known  as  House  Bill  7136.  He  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing a  favorable  report  from  the  committee  on  territories,  and  by- 
courtesy  was  appointed  to  make  the  report  himself,  which  he  did 
on  March  16,  1892.  The  bill  passed  the  House  on  June  6th  and 
reached  the  senate  June  8,  1892,  but  had  the  usual  fate  of  failing 
to  pass  that  body. 

In  the  53d  Congress,  Hon.  Antonio  Joseph  was  again  a  delegate 
from  New  Mexico,  and  introduced  a  statehood  bill  at  the  earliest 
possible  opportunity  of  the  first  session.  This  bill  passed  the 
House  on  the  28th  of  June,  1894,  and  in  the  senate  was  referred 
to  the  committee  on  territories.  As  usual,  the  session  proved  too 
short  for  action  on  the  bill,  so  it  suffered  the  fate  of  its  prede- 
cessors. 

Constitution  of  1890 

While  Congress  was  discussing  one  of  these  numerous  bills, 
without  result,  the  people  of  New  Mexico  determined  to  take  the 
matter  into  their  own  hands  and  initiate  the  necessary  proceed- 
ings for  admission  to  the  Union. 

In  February,  1889,  Hon.  George  W.  Prichard  introduced  in 
the  Council  "An  Act  to  Provide  for  a  Constitutional  Convention 
and  the  Formation  of  a  State  Constitution."  The  bill  provided 
for  a  delegate  convention  to  be  held  in  September,  1889,  for  the 
purpose  of  framing  a  constitution.  The  convention  was  to  be 
composed  of  73  delegates,  who  were  apportioned  by  the  bill 
among  the  various  counties,  and  were  to  be  chosen  at  an  election 
on  the  first  Tuesday  in  August.  It  was  to  frame  a  constitution 
and  provide  for  a  special  election  at  which  such  constitution 
should  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratification.  This  bill  was 
passed  by  both  houses,  but  the  governor  failed  to  approve  it,  as  he 
considered  the  apportionment  objectionable ;  but  he  did  not  veto 
it,  and  it  became  a  law  by  limitation,  February  28,  1889. 

The  democrats,  as  a  rule,  under  peremptory  orders  from  Mr. 
Childers,  chairman  of  their  committee,  refused  to  nominate  can- 
didates or  participate  in  the  election.  A  very  few  men  of  suffi- 
cient influence  or  independence  to  disregard  the  commands  of 
the  party  leaders  united  with  the  republicans  in  the  campaign, 


STEUGGLE  FOR  STATEHOOD  235 

Hon.  L.  S.  Trimble,  long  a  member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky, 
being  the  most  conspicuous  example. 

It  met  on  September  3,  1889,  elected  J.  Francisco  Chaves  as 
president,  and  continued  in  session  till  September  21.  The  con- 
stitution was  then  printed  in  both  English  and  Spanish  and 
circulated  widely  throughout  the  territory. 

After  an  adjournment  of  nearly  an  entire  year  the  convention 
re-assembled  on  August  18, 1890,  and  provided  for  the  submission 
of  the  constitution  to  a  vote  of  the  people  on  October  7,  1890. 
At  the  election  the  constitution  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  16,180 
to  7,493. 

This  adverse  vote  had  no  effect  on  the  efforts  of  the  people  for 
self-government,  and  all  parties  proceeded  as  before  in  endeavor- 
ing to  secure  admission  through  an  enabling  act  of  Congress. 

Congressional  Action  Again 

In  the  54th  Congress  (1895),  Mr.  Joseph  was  succeeded  by 
Hon.  Thomas  B.  Catron.  He  had  always  been  an  active  friend  of 
statehood  and  lost  no  time  in  introducing  an  enabling  act. 

The  history  of  the  struggle  during  the  next  ten  years  presents 
a  succession  of  attempts,  regularly  begun  at  the  opening  of  each 
new  Congress,  carried  on  with  more  or  less  vigor,  with  apparent 
excellent  prospects  of  success,  usually  resulting  in  the  passage  of 
the  bill  by  the  house  of  representatives  and  its  reference  in  the 
senate  to  the  committee  on  territories.  Sometimes  there  would  be 
public  hearings  by  a  committee ;  usually  the  delegate  would  make 
at  least  one  speech,  begging  for  tardy  justice  to  his  people,  and 
then  at  some  stage  of  the  procedure,  either  in  the  House  or  in  the 
senate,  either  in  committee  or  on  the  floor,  a  snag  was  encoun- 
tered, and  the  bill  died  at  the  end  of  the  session  because  it  could 
not  overcome  the  obstacle  in  time. 

Mr.  Catron  was  succeeded  as  delegate  by  Hon.  H.  B.  Fergus- 
son  in  the  55th  Congress,  and  he,  by  Hon.  Pedro  Perea  in  the  56th. 

Hon.  Bernard  S.  Rodey  was  delegate  from  New  Mexico  in  both 
the  57th  and  58th  Congresses,  which  extended  from  1901  to  1905. 

To  say  that  he  was  devoted  to  the  cause  of  statehood  is  to  state 


236  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  case  mildly.  He  was  enthusiastically  devoted  to  it.  He  set 
before  himself  as  the  one  great  object  to  be  attained  during  his 
congressional  service,  the  passage  of  an  enabling  act  for  New 
Mexico.  Everything  else  was  subordinated  to  it,  in  order  that 
this  particular  matter  could  have  undivided  attention.  But 
even  his  enthusiasm  could  not  produce  the  desired  effect ;  and  the 
sessions  were  barren  of  result. 

In  1905,  Hon.  W.  H.  Andrews  became  delegate  from  New 
Mexico,  and  took  up  the  work  of  the  struggle  where  it  had  been 
left  by  his  predecessor.  Mr.  Andrews  was  no  less  anxious  for 
statehood  than  Mr.  Rodey;  but  his  method  of  operation  was  en- 
tirely different.  He  was  never  known  to  make  a  regular 
"speech,"  except  of  the  shortest  description;  but  as  a  quiet  and 
convincing  conversationalist  he  had  few  equals.  His  close  con- 
nection with  Senators  Quay  and  Penrose  and  the  Pennsylvania 
delegation  gave  him  an  influence  that  was  very  valuable,  and 
which  was  constantly  used  to  advance  the  cause  of  New  Mexican 
statehood. 

The  question  of  forming  one  state  by  uniting  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  became  prominent  at  this  time,  the  bill  which  elicited 
most  debate  being  an  enabling  act  for  Oklahoma  and  the  Indian 
Territory  as  one  state,  and  for  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  as  one 
state.  . 

Joint  Statehood  Movement  of  1 906 

The  idea  of  joint  statehood  for  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  was 
distasteful  in  both  territories.  There  was  good  reason  for  this. 
Nature  itself  had  separated  them  by  placing  the  great  Continen- 
tal Divide  as  a  practical  barrier  between  them.  It  seemed  im- 
possible for  the  eastern  mind  to  grasp  this  elemental  fact.  The 
average  eastern  congressman,  knowing  that  each  territory  was 
anxious  for  statehood,  and  really  unfavorable  to  an  increase  of 
western  states,  looked  at  the  map,  saw  two  squares  contiguous 
to  each  other,  and  instantly  found  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
difficulty  by  saying :  ' '  Why  not  join  them  together  and  make  one 
oblong  of  them  ? ' '  The  opponents  of  western  influence  saw  in  this 
an  easy  method  to  reduce  the  danger  of  too  many  senators ;  and 


STRUGGLE  FOR  STATEHOOD  237 

to  the  ignorant  and  unthinking  it  seemed  a  simple  and  natural 
arrangement,  and  so  the  "joint  statehood"  bill  was  passed  by 
Congress. 

What  made  the  plan  even  more  unpalatable  to  New  Mexicans 
was  the  proposition  to  call  the  new  state  "Arizona."  This 
showed  as  great  an  ignorance  of  history  as  the  proposed  union 
did  of  geography. 

But  the  joint  statehood  bill  having  been  passed,  the  practical 
question  was,  what  to  do  about  it.  The  national  administration 
in  Washington  was  fully  committed  to  this  plan  of  admission. 
The  territories  were  practically  threatened  by  the  dominant 
powers  at  the  national  capital  that  if  this  plan  for  admission  was 
rejected  by  the  people,  it  would  be  long  before  any  new  oppor- 
tunity for  statehood  could  be  obtained.  In  the  minds  of  most 
New  Mexicans  it  was  a  choice  between  two  evils,  and  the  intense 
desire  to  escape  from  the  demoralizing  conditions  almost  insep- 
arable from  the  provincial  system,  and  to  enjoy  the  American 
right  of  self-government,  prevailed  with  a  great  number  of 
citizens. 

The  two  political  organizations  in  New  Mexico,  usually  too 
antagonistic  to  work  harmoniously  in  any  cause,  through  their 
territorial  committees  united  in  an  appeal  to  the  people  to  vote 
"aye"  at  the  election,  for  joint  statehood. 

It  is  probable  that  the  almost  universal  belief  that  Arizona 
would  vote  against  jointure,  and  that  consequently  New  Mexico 
could  show  her  desire  for  statehood  without  danger,  and  place 
herself  in  a  favorable  position  for  future  action  in  Washington, 
had  influence  with  some.  At  all  events,  the  majority  in  favor  of 
admission  under  the  joint  statehood  act,  at  the  election  of  1906 
in  New  Mexico,  was  a  very  substantial  one,  the  vote  being  nearly 
two  to  one  in  the  territory  and  as  high  as  ten  to  one  in  certain 
counties.    It  was  officially  announced  as  follows: 

Yes 26,195 

No 14,735 

Majority  for  Joint  Statehood.  . ; 11,460 

Arizona  voted  "no"  on  the  joint  statehood  proposition,  by  an 


238  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

overwhelming  vote,  as  had  been  expected ;  and  that  negative  vote 
ended  all  further  proceedings  under  the  joint  statehood  act. 

Proposed  Convention  of  1907 

"With  careful  foresight  preliminary  measures  had  been  taken  in 
advance  of  the  election  to  take  advantage  of  exactly  the  situa- 
tion which  actually  did  occur,  by  arranging  that  in  case  Arizona 
declined  the  proffered  partnership,  but  New  Mexico  voted  for 
statehood,  the  New  Mexican  delegates  should  meet  and  formulate 
a  constitution  for  that  state  alone  and  present  it  in  Washington 
with  a  request  for  admission  under  it. 

The  advantages  of  this  course  were  obvious  to  everyone  in- 
formed as  to  the  history  of  the  admission  of  territories.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  the  delegates,  representing  all  sections  of  the 
territory,  met  at  the  capitol  in  Santa  Fe  on  January  7,  1907,  and 
organized  by  the  election  of  L.  B.  Prince,  of  Rio  Arriba  county, 
as  president,  and  David  M.  White,  of  Santa  Fe,  as  secretary. 
Letters  were  received  from  a  large  number  of  absent  delegates 
stating  that  they  would  attend  as  soon  as  active  business  was 
commenced.  Letters  were  also  read  from  a  number  of  leading 
United  States  senators  expressing  great  interest  in  the  work  of 
the  convention  and  urging  the  early  formation  and  presentation 
of  a  constitution.  After  a  full  discussion  of  the  situation,  it  was 
resolved  to  adjourn  to  February  5,  when  the  legislature  would 
be  in  session. 

At  the  February  meeting,  a  large  number  of  delegates  who 
could  not  attend  in  January  were  present.  All  recognized  the 
importance  of  framing  a  constitution  as  soon  as  practicable,  in 
order  to  secure  early  congressional  action,  but  there  was  con- 
siderable discussion  as  to  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  conven- 
tion. Mr.  Catron  moved  that  a  committee  of  seven  be  appointed 
to  prepare  a  bill  for  the  legislature,  looking  to  a  meeting  of  the 
convention  in  August,  and  to  confer  with  members  of  that  body 
relative  to  its  provisions  and  passage. 

For  reasons  difficult  to  understand,  no  further  action  was  taken. 
The  legislature  was  a  very  busy  one  and  largely  occupied  by 


240  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

political  contentions,  and  gave  the  subject  scant  attention.  After 
the  legislature  had  failed  to  act,  the  governor  was  asked  to  name  a 
time  for  the  assembling  of  the  delegates,  in  order  to  give  the  con- 
vention his  official  sanction,  but  this  also  failed. 

Thus  again  the  opportunity  for  almost  immediate  admission 
was  lost.  Every  one  has  since  realized  that  if  the  delegates  had 
gone  on  with  their  work  and  prepared  a  constitution,  and  the 
matter  could  thus  have  been  presented  to  Congress  in  the  succeed- 
ing winter,  free  from  uncertainty  as  to  the  character  of  the  gov- 
ernment which  would  be  established,  New  Mexico  would  have  be- 
come a  state  in  1908. 

Success 

When  the  61st  Congress  met,  in  December,  1909,  Mr.  Andrews 
again  represented  New  Mexico,  having  been  re-elected  mainly  on 
the  statehood  issue.  He  pursued  the  course  of  wisdom  by  co- 
operating with  the  House  committee  on  territories,  wHh  the  result 
that  on  January  17,  1910,  the  so-called  Hamilton  Bill  —  H.  R. 
18166  —  was  passed  by  the  house  of  representatives  without  oppo- 
sition. It  was  received  in  the  senate  the  next  day  and  referred 
to  the  committee  on  territories. 

It  was  well  known  that  Senator  Beveridge  had  in  mind  a  num- 
ber of  provisions  varying  from  those  in  the  Hamilton  bill,  but 
thanks  to  strong  influences  outside  of  Congress,  pre-eminent 
among  which  was  that  of  President  Taft,  there  was  now  little 
outspoken  opposition  to  statehood  for  either  New  Mexico  or 
Arizona. 

The  only  division  was  as  to  preference  for  the  senate  or  the 
house  bill.  The  vote  on  this  question  was  by  strict  party  lines, 
the  republicans  voting  for  the  senate  bill  and  the  democrats  for 
the  House  bill,  the  result  being  42  to  19  in  favor  of  the  former. 
On  the  final  vote  on  the  passage  of  the  bill,  the  vote  was  unani- 
mous ! 

Shortly  after  two  o'clock  on  the  afternoon  of  Saturday,  June 
18,  Speaker  Cannon  laid  the  bill  as  amended  in  the  senate  before 
the  House.  There  w^as  a  moment  of  suppressed  excitement,  and 
then  Mr.  I^loyd,  of  Missouri,  the  senior  democratic  member  of 


PENS  WHICH  SIGNED  ENABLING  ACT 


242  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  committee,  rose  and  said  that  while  he  was  not  entirely  satis- 
fied with  the  senate  bill,  yet  in  order  to  insure  immediate  state- 
hood for  the  territories  he  would  not  oppose  it.  Instantly  Mr. 
Hamilton,  the  committee  chairman,  moved  to  concur  in  the  senate 
amendments.  The  question  was  put,  viva  voce,  there  being  no 
demand  for  a  roll  call,  and  the  House  concurred  by  unanimous 
vote! 

The  deed  was  done !  The  long  conflict  of  sixty  years  was  over ! 
Members  crowded  around  Delegate  Andrews  to  offer  congratu- 
lations. 

At  Last 

That  was  on  Saturday. 

The  President  had  signified  his  desire  to  affix  the  signature 
which  would  give  legal  vitality  to  the  bill  and  transform  it  into 
a  law  before  leaving  "Washington  on  Monday,  so  all  the  preceding 
formalities  were  hastened. 

On  Monday  morning,  notwithstanding  its  length,  the  statehood 
bill  was  properly  enrolled  and  ready  for  the  official  signatures. 

From  the  capitol  it  was  quickly  conveyed  to  the  White  House, 
where  the  President  was  ready  to  act.  Here  were  assembled 
several  of  those  who  had  been  most  active  in  achieving  its  suc- 
cess, with  such  representatives  of  the  two  territories  as  were  in 
the  national  capital. 

The  President  said  a  few  words  of  congratulation,  and  then 
proposed  to  affix  his  official  signature.  The  postmaster  general 
presented  a  gold  pen  with  the  request  that  it  should  be  used,  and 
Delegate  Andrews  produced  the  unique  gold-banded  quill  taken 
from  the  great  American  eagle  captured  in  Taos,  and  furnished 
for  the  occasion,  in  its  beautiful  case,  as  a  patriotic  service 
by  George  B.  Paxton,  when  he  had  no  thought  that  Death  would 
forbid  his  presence  at  the  ceremony.  The  President  wrote  half 
of  the  signature  with  the  former  and  the  remainder  with  the  lat- 
ter, returning  the  pens  to  the  donors  as  mementoes  of  this  great 
historic  occasion. 

The  White  House  clock  stood  at  1 :40  p.  m. 

That  signature  ended  the  drama  of  the  ''Struggle  for  State- 


STRUGGLE  FOR  STATEHOOD      243 

hood."  There  had  been  more  than  fifty  statehood  bills  in  the 
sixty  years  of  effort.  Those  few  penstrokes  transformed  a  State- 
hood Bill  into  a  Statehood  Law. 


CHAPTEE  XXIV 

Churches  —  Schools  —  Newspapers 

In  order  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of  certain  subjects,  it 
seems  necessary  to  group  together  the  facts  connected  with  them 
rather  than  to  scatter  them  in  the  general  narrative  as  they  oc- 
curred chronologically;  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  such 
distinct  topics  as  those  of  Churches,  Schools,  and  Newspapers. 
"With  a  view,  therefore,  to  convenience  of  reference,  and  a  con- 
nected consideration  of  each  subject  separately,  the  leading  facts 
regarding  these  three  topics  are  thus  brought  together  in  this 
chapter. 

Churches 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  into  New  Mexico,  by  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Franciscan  friars,  has  been  referred  to  many  times 
in  the  general  historical  narrative,  because  it  is  so  closely  inter- 
woven with  other  events  that  it  could  not  easily  be  separated. 

Thus  we  have  heard  of  the  friars  Juan  de  Padilla  and  Luis  de 
Escalona,  who  insisted  on  remaining  as  missionaries  among  the 
northern  Indians  when  Coronado's  army  returned  to  Mexico  in 
1542,  and  who  soon  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom  which  was 
the  certain  result  of  their  determination. 

We  also  know  the  touching  history  of  Friar  Agustin  Rodriguez 
or  Ruiz,  who  begged  the  privilege  of  entering  this  field  of  mis- 
sionary effort,  and  finally  succeeded  in  reaching  New  Mexico 
with  his  companions,  Friars  Francisco  Ijopez  and  Juan  de  Santa 
Maria,  with  a  small  escort  of  soldiers,  in  1580.  Here  they  set- 
tled at  Puara,  no  doubt  the  Tihuex  of  Coronado,  as  the  center  of 
operations ;  and  when  the  soldiers  of  the  king  insisted  on  return- 
ing to  the  south,  these  Soldiers  of  the  Cross  refused  to  leave  the 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS    245 

land  where  there  were  so  many  heathen  to  be  converted ;  and  so, 
in  turn,  each  sealed  his  testimony  with  his  blood. 

We  have  read  of  the  zeal  of  the  Franciscans  who  accompanied 
Ofiate  in  the  colonization  of  the  territory,  and  of  the  immediate 
building  of  the  first  church  in  New  Mexico,  at  San  Gabriel,  and 
its  dedication  on  August  8,  1598,  with  elaborate  ceremonies  to 
impress  the  minds  of  the  native  Indians.  There  were  then  ten 
Franciscans  with  the  expedition  and  they  were  promptly  as- 
signed to  the  important  pueblos,  and  the  era  of  church  building 
commenced. 

When  Ofiate  went  on  his  celebrated  expedition  to  Quivira,  in 
1601,  he  was  accompanied  by  Father  Yelasco  and  Father  Ver- 
gara,  leaving  Father  Escalona  and  four  other  Franciscans  at  San 
Gabriel.  At  this  date  began  the  complaints  of  the  Franciscans 
against  the  tyranny,  cruelty,  and  injustice  of  the  governors, 
which  continued  almost  without  intermission,  and  no  doubt  not 
without  good  cause,  through  most  of  the  administrations  under 
the  Spanish  crown. 

About  1620  came  Padre  Geronimo  de  Zarate  Salmeron,  the 
most  successful  of  missionaries,  who  baptized  no  less  than  6,566 
Indians  during  his  eight  years'  residence  at  Jemez,  and  accord- 
ing to  whom  and  to  Benavides,  34,000  Indians  had  been  baptized 
and  43  churches  built  before  1626.  In  1621  the  New  Mexican 
missions  were  organized  as  the  "Custodia  of  the  Conversion  of 
St.  Paul, ' '  in  exclusive  charge  of  the  Franciscans  and  with  Bena- 
vides himself  as  the  first  custodio. 

Father  Francisco  de  Ay  eta  was  appointed  custodio  in  1674 
but  returned  to  Mexico  and  was  absent  at  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1680.  On  August  10  of  that  year  occurred  the  great  up- 
rising of  the  Pueblos,  and  the  most  wholesale  martyrdom  of 
Franciscan  missionaries  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  In  a  single 
day  21  were  killed  in  various  ways  in  the  different  pueblos  where 
they  were  stationed.  Lack  of  space  does  not  permit  giving  the 
particulars;  but  the  terrible  event  created  such  an  interest  all 
over  the  Christian  world  that  a  solemn  funeral  ceremony  took 
place  in  the  cathedral  of  the  city  of  Mexico  on  the  succeeding 


246  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

20th  of  March,  when  all  the  dignitaries  of  New  Spain  were  pres- 
ent and  a  remarkable  obituary  sermon  was  preached  by  Dr. 
Ysidro  Sariiiana  y  Cuenca. 

The  whole  history  of  the  Franciscan  missions  in  New  Mexico 
is  one  of  wonderful  zeal,  devotion,  and  self  sacrifice.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  imagine  a  greater  example  of  self-abnegation  than  the 
practical  exile  from  civilization  and  companionship  involved  in  a 
residence  in  an  isolated  pueblo,  absolutely  cut  olf  from  the  world, 
ministering  to  a  people  with  whose  habits  of  life  and  thought 
there  could  be  scarcely  anything  in  common.  No  more  forcible 
example  of  an  unselfish  missionary  spirit  can  be  found  in  history 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Franciscans  of  New  Mexico  during  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries. 

The  majestic  ruins  of  the  great  mission  churches  at  Pecos,  Abo, 
Cuara,  and  the  so-called  Gran  Quivira,  and  a  host  of  others,  bear 
witness  to  the  labors  of  the  zealous  Soldiers  of  the  Cross ;  while  the 
existing  churches  in  the  towns  of  the  Rio  Grande  valley,  and  at 
Acoma,  Laguna,  and  other  pueblos,  are  an  additional  evidence  of 
the  zeal  and  success  of  the  Christian  temple-builders  of  those 
days. 

During  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  eras,  New  Mexico  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Roman  Catholic  diocese  of  Durango,  and  eccle- 
siastically subject  to  its  bishops.  Episcopal  visitations,  however, 
were  few  and  far  between.  Bishop  Crespo  came  in  1725  but  did 
not  reach  Santa  Fe;  and  again  in  1730  made  a  more  extended 
tour,  but  in  some  places  was  not  allowed  to  hold  confirmations,  as 
the  Franciscans  disclaimed  his  authority.  A  protracted  contro- 
versy ensued  as  to  this  between  the  bishop  and  the  Franciscan 
authorities  in  Mexico.  There  were  also  long  continued  contro- 
versies between  the  Franciscans  and  the  Jesuits  as  to  the  eccle- 
siastical control  of  Moqui. 

Just  one  episcopal  visitation  was  made  by  Bishop  Elizacochea^ 
of  Durango,  and  in  1760  Bishop  Tamaron  made  a  ^dsitation  dur- 
ing which  he  is  said  to  have  confirmed  2,973  persons  in  El  Paso, 
and  11,371  in  New  Mexico.  Then  for  a  long  time  New  Mexico 
seems  to  have  been  forgotten  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  so 


CHUECHES  — SCHOOLS  — NEWSPAPERS  247 

that  Pedro  Bautista  Pino,  when  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Cortes 
in  1812,  said  that  he  had  never  seen  a  bishop  in  his  life  until  he 
came  to  Spain. 

With  the  Mexican  revolution  came  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Franciscans  and  the  substitution  of  secular  priests;  and  these 
latter  were  largely  recruited  from  the  leading  families  of  New 
Mexico  itself.  In  numbers  the  clergy  were  greatly  reduced,  there 
being,  in  1823,  but  five  Franciscans  and  six  secular  priests  in  the 
territory.  Bishop  Zubiria  visited  New  Mexico  in  1833,  spending 
several  months  in  the  territory  and  making  a  special  journey  to 
Abiquiu  in  July.  He  came  again  in  1837,  and  once  more  in  1850, 
after  the  American  occupation. 

For  a  long  time  before  that  date,  Rev.  Juan  Felipe  Ortiz  had 
been  vicar  general  in  charge  of  New  Mexico,  and  he  was  left  in 
control  by  Bishop  Zubiria  in  1850 ;  but  the  change  in  sovereignty 
naturally  caused  a  change  in  ecclesiastical  relations,  and  the  Pope 
erected  New  Mexico  into  a  separate  vicarate,  with  Rev.  John  B. 
Lamy  as  apostolic  vicar,  he  being  consecrated  as  a  bishop  in 
partibus  for  that  purpose,  at  Cincinnati,  on  November  24,  1850. 
Owing  to  the  long  delays  of  travel,  he  did  not  arrive,'  in  Santa  Fe 
until  July,  1851.  Neither  the  vicar  general  nor  any  of  the  clergy 
had  been  informed  of  his  appointment,  and  they  still  held  al- 
legiance to  the  bishop  of  Durango ;  but  this  difficulty  was  soon  set 
at  rest,  and  all  accepted  the  new  authority. 

In  1852  Bishop  Lamy  was  formally  given  the  title  of  Bishop 
of  Santa  Fe.  He  found  in  his  new  jurisdiction  only  ten  priests, 
and  their  names  show  them  all  to  have  been  of  New  Mexican 
families.  Those  names  are  Ortiz,  Gallegos,  Leiva,  Lucero,  Lujan, 
Martinez,  Montaiio,  Salazar,  and  Trujillo.  Between  such  a  Mexi- 
can priesthood  with  the  habits  and  customs  that  had  existed  for  a 
long  period  and  a  young  and  earnest  bishop  of  French  birth  and 
ideas,  not  much  harmony  could  be  expected.  There  was  friction 
from  the  beginning.  One  by  one  the  old  priests  were  removed 
and  their  places  filled  by  French  clergy  whom  the  bishop  secured 
by  a  personal  visit  in  1853.  These  latter  were  earnest  young 
men,  thoroughly  devoted  to  the  bishop,  and  the  most  of  whom 


248  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

spent  their  lives  in  New  Mexico  in  zealous  parochial  labors,  and 
left  behind  them  a  good  report  of  influence  exerted  and  work  ac- 
complished. Of  the  deposed  Mexican  clergy,  two  became  im- 
portant political  factors  in  the  territory.  Padre  Martinez  of 
Taos,  and  Padre  Gallegos  of  Albuquerque ;  the  former  also  con- 
tinued to  exercise  his  priestly  functions  in  a  chapel  at  Taos,  until 
his  death,  and  was  followed  and  supported  by  a  large  and  im- 
portant portion  of  his  old  parishioners. 

From  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  vicarate  and  subse- 
quent diocese,  there  has  been  steady  progress. 

In  February,  1875,  Santa  Fe  was  made  an  arch-diocese  with 
Bishop  Lamy  as  archbishop ;  Colorado  and  Arizona  being  within 
the  enlarged  jurisdiction. 

On  February  19, 1885,  Bishop  Salpointe,  of  Tucson,  became  co- 
adjutor to  Archbishop  Lamy,  and  succeeded  him  us  archbishop 
on  his  resignation,  on  October  11  of  that  year. 

In  August,  1891,  Rev.  Placido  L.  Chapelle,  of  Washington,  was 
consecrated  as  bishop  and  appointed  as  co-ad jutor  to  Archbishop 
Salpointe,  and  on  the  resignation  of  the  latter  became  archbishop 
of  Santa  Fe,  January  9,  1894.  He  was  subsequently  promoted 
to  be  archbishop  of  New  Orleans. 

To  the  great  joy  of  the  old  French  clergy  of  New  Mexico, 
Bishop  Bourgade,  who  was  one  of  the  priests  brought  out  by 
Bishop  Lamy  in  1869,  was  selected  to  succeed  Archbishop 
Chapelle,  and  became  archbishop,  January  7, 1899. 

The  Rev.  J.  B.  Pitaval,  of  Colorado,  was  consecrated  bishop 
and  made  assistant  to  Archbishop  Bourgade,  July  25,  1902;  and 
succeeded  the  latter,  after  his  death  on  January  3,  1909.  All  the 
occupants  of  the  archi-episcopal  chair  of  Santa  Fe  have  been  men 
of  high  character  and  ability,  and  the  affairs  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  in  New  Mexico  have  been  well  cared  for  and 
successfully  conducted  under  their  wise  administration. 


Down  to  the  time  of  the  American  occupation,  the  Roman 
Catholic  was  the  only  form  of  Christianity  known  in  New  Mexico, 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS  249 

and  indeed  there  was  little  else  until  the  coming  of  the  railroad, 
in  1879;  for  the  so-called  ''Americans"  that  came  into  the  coun- 
try before  that  time  were  not  of  a  class  that  usually  cares  much 
about  religious  organizations  of  any  kind. 

The  first  Protestant  clergyman  to  hold  services  in  New  Mexico 
was  Rev.  Henry  W.  Reed,  who  officiated  in  Santa  Fe,  in  July, 
1849,  and  also  conducted  a  school  in  that  city.  He  erected  a 
modest  adobe  church,  which  was  the  first  Protestant  place  of 
worship,  and  was  dedicated  January  15,  1854.  As  the  mission 
did  not  prove  a  success,  the  property  was  sold  to  the  Presby- 
terians in  1866.  In  1852  Rev.  Samuel  Gorman  came  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  pueblo  of  Laguna  and  was  formally  adopted  as  a 
member  of  the  pueblo,  and  was  its  governor  at  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1861.  Years  afterwards,  the  work  at  that  pueblo  was 
renewed  by  Rev.  John  Menaul,  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  who 
established  a  school  and  preached  regularly  there  for  many  years. 
He  learned  the  language  of  the  Indians  sufficiently  well  to  use 
it  in  his  services.  He  opened  a  printing  office,  in  which  he  did 
the  work  himself,  and  published  several  pamphlets  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Laguna  Indians,  all  of  which  are  now  very  rare. 
Since  the  immigration  from  the  East  the  Baptists  have  established 
congregations  in  many  places,  and  now  have  28  churches  valued 
at  $67,300.00. 

The  Methodists  were  the  next  in  the  field.  In  December,  1850, 
they  sent  Rev.  E.  G.  Nicholson  to  Santa  Fe,  where  he  conducted 
services  for  about  two  years,  but  found  the  field  so  discouraging 
that  the  work  was  abandoned.  Other  attempts  met  a  similar  fate 
until  ReY.  Thomas  Harwood  arrived  in  1871  and  settled  at  La 
Junta,  now  called  Watrous.  His  energy  and  persistence  over- 
came all  obstacles  and  the  results  of  his  long  continued  labors 
are  now  to  be  seen  in  missions  and  schools  in  all  sections  of  the 
state.  For  a  long  period  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  work 
of  the  Methodist  church  in  New  Mexico,  and  after  forty  years  of 
constant  service  he  is  still  actively  engaged  in  his  official  labors. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  church  has  now  51  churches  in  New 
Mexico,  valued  at  $125,000.00 ;  and  the  Southern  Methodists,  who 


250  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

entered  the  territory  much  later,  have  25  churches  with  an  esti- 
mated value  of  $70,000.00. 

The  Rev.  W.  T.  Kephardt  was  the  first  Presbyterian  mission- 
ary, and  he  entered  upon  his  duties  in  the  same  year,  1851,  also 
at  Santa  Fe.  In  fact,  in  the  beginning,  all  missionary  work  was 
there.  Mr.  Kephardt  failed  to  make  any  impression,  and  soon 
devoted  himself  to  editorial  work  of  anti-slavery  character  on 
the  Santa  Fe  Gazette.  The  mission  work,  however,  was  not 
abandoned;  in  1866  the  Baptist  property  at  Santa  Fe  was  pur- 
chased at  considerable  expense,  and  after  the  coming  of  the  rail- 
road a  very  creditable  church  was  erected  in  place  of  the  old 
adobe  structure.  The  Presbyterians  have  been  very  active  and 
constant  in  their  work,  both  with  the  Americans  and  Mexicans; 
and  with  schools  as  well  as  churches.  They  now  have  44  church 
edifices,  which  are  valued  at  over  $100,000,  besides  their  educa- 
tional institutions. 

On  July  5,  1863,  and  the  succeeding  Sunday,  the  first  services 
of  the  Episcopal  church  were  held  in  Santa  Fe,  by  the  Right 
Rev.  Joseph  C.  Talbot,  then  Missionary  Bishop  of  the  Northwest, 
assisted  by  Rev.  M.  A.  Rich,  and  Rev.  A.  H.  De  Mora,  the  ser- 
vices being  both  in  English  and  Spanish.  In  1868,  Bishop  Ran- 
dall, of  Colorado,  temporarily  in  charge  of  New  Mexico,  made  a 
visitation  and  officiated,  but  there  was  not  yet  a  resident  clergy- 
man. 

In  1874  the  General  Convention  of  the  Church  organized  New 
Mexico  and  iVrizona  into  a  missionary  district  and  elected  Rev. 
Wm.  F.  Adams,  of  New  Orleans,  as  bishop.  Dr.  Adams  was  con- 
secrated in  New  Orleans  on  January  17,  1875,  by  the  bishops  of 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Georgia.  He  proceeded  to  his  new 
field  without  delay,  arriving  in  Santa  Fe  in  time  for  a  service  on 
February  7,  and  bringing  with  him  Rev.  Henry  Forrester. 
Bishop  Adams  resigned  in  1877,  and  left  Mr.  Forrester  as  the 
only  Episcopal  clergyman  in  New  Mexico.  He  continued  in 
charge  in  Santa  Fe  until  the  fall  of  1879,  when  he  moved  to  Las 
Vegas  and  succeeded  in  building  the  first  Episcopal  church  in 
New  Mexico  —  a  very  plain,  adobe  structure,  still  standing.    In 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS  251 


1880  the  district  was  regularly  organized  by  holding  the  first 
convocation  in  Albuquerque,  where  resolutions  were  passed 
asking  for  the  immediate  election  of  a  new  bishop.  Bishop  Spald- 
ing, of  Colorado,  presided. 

At  the  General  Convention,  held  in  the  ensuing  October,  Rev. 
George  K.  Dunlop,  of  Missouri,  was  elected  bishop,  and  was  con- 
secrated in  November,  1880.  During  his  episcopate,  stone 
churches  were  built  at  Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  and  Las  Vegas, 
a  number  of  other  points  were  occupied  and  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  prospered.  He  died  in  March,  1888,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Right  Rev.  J.  Mills  Kendrick,  of  Ohio,  who  was  consecrated 
January  18,  1889,  and  died  in  the  summer  of  1911.  In  1892  New 
Mexico  became  a  district  by  itself,  and  at  the  General  Convention 
of  1910  Bishop  Kendrick  was  relieved  of  the  care  of  Arizona  so 
as  to  devote  his  entire  attention  to  New  Mexico.  The  growth 
of  the  Church,  though  not  rapid,  has  been  substantial.  The  num- 
ber of  churches  is  14,  valued  at  $66,750. 

The  Congregationalists  were  prominent  in  New  Mexico  at  the 
time  when  the  New  West  Commission  was  conducting  the  acade- 
mies at  Santa  Fe,  Las  Vegas,  Albuquerque,  etc.,  and  the  Uni- 
versity at  Santa  Fe  was  actively  engaged  in  educational  work. 
In  1881  and  1882  churches  were  built  in  Santa  Fe  and  Albu- 
querque. At  the  present  time  they  have  four  churches,  valued  at 
$20,000. 

Various  other  Christian  bodies,  as  well  as  the  Jews,  whose  first 
temple  was  erected  in  1885,  are  now  represented  in  the  state. 
All  religious  organizations  are  prosperous  and  doing  good  work. 
The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  congregations  and  mem- 
bers belonging  to  each  religious  body  according  to  the  latest 
statistics : 

Congregations  Members 

Adventist 6  218 

Baptists 

Plymouth  Brethren 
Christadelphian 
Congregational 


62 

2,403 

1 

6 

1 

10 

5 

270 

252 


HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


Christian  or  Disciples 

Episcopal 

Independent 

Jewish     . 

Mormon 

Lutheran 

Methodist,  North 

Methodist,  South 

Methodist,  Colored 

Presbyterian 

Reformed 

Roman  Catholic 

Salvationists 


16 

1,092 

18 

867 

1 

30 

3 

120 

6 

738 

3 

100 

62 

3,513 

48 

2,882 

5 

165 

54 

2,935 

2 

70 

330 

121,558 

2 

30 

Schools 


Although  there  had  been  some  royal  decrees  on  the  subject,  yet 
it  was  not  until  the  establishment  of  Mexican  independence  that 
any  practical  movement  was  made  looking  toward  the  general 
education  of  the  people ;  but  under  the  new  system  of  self-govern- 
ment this  important  subject  immediately  attracted  attention.  As 
early  as  April  27,  1822,  the  provincial  deputation  passed  the  fol- 
lowing resolution:  "RESOLVED,  that  the  town  councils  [aynn- 
tamientos]  be  officially  notified  to  complete  the  formation  of  pri- 
mary public  schools  as  soon  as  possible  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  each  community. ' '  Unfortunately,  the  good  intentions 
evinced  by  this  resolution  had  very  little  practical  result  in  New 
Mexico,  owing  to  the  circumstances  of  the  country,  and  for  a  long 
period  none  but  those  who  were  able  to  afford  private  instruction 
received  any  education  worthy  of  the  name.  The  sons  of  the 
wealthy  in  many  cases  were  sent  to  Durango  and  even  as  far  as 
the  city  of  Mexico  on  the  south,  while  others  went  eastward,  to 
St.  Louis,  Montreal,  and  even  New  York  for  their  advanced  edu- 
cation ;  but  their  numbers  of  course  were  very  limited. 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPxVPERS  253 

There  were  a  few  private  schools,  carried  on  from  time  to  time 
by  individual  teachers,  but  without  any  organization  or  continu- 
ity. One  of  the  first  of  these  was  that  of  Geronimo  Becerra  at 
Abiquiu,  about  the  year  1800,  at  which  the  future  Padre  Mar- 
tinez and  a  number  of  other  boys  of  the  northern  district  received 
the  rudiments  of  education.  The  best  known  of  all  of  these 
schools  was  that  carried  on  for  many  years  in  Taos  by  the  same 
Padre  Martinez  himself.  This  celebrated  priest  was  an  enthu- 
siast on  the  subject  of  education,  and  the  result  of  his  teaching 
influenced  an  entire  generation  in  the  north  of  the  territory.  He 
printed,  on  a  small  press  which  had  been  brought  from  Mexico 
to  Santa  Fe,  and  which  he  carried  to  Taos,  the  first  books  that 
were  ever  published  in  the  territory,  being  elementary  books  of 
instruction  to  be  used  by  his  students.  He  also  published  the  first 
newspaper  in  New  Mexico,  which  is  referred  to  elsewhere. 

At  nearly  the  same  time  the  Rev.  Agustin  Fernandez  had  a 
similar  school  in  Santa  Fe.  One  Rafael  Pacheco  taught  boys, 
about  the  year  1840,  in  his  house  near  the  present  St.  Michael's 
college.  Soon  after  this  Mauricio  Arce  had  a  boys'  school  on  San 
Francisco  street,  and  Maraquita  Arce,  his  wife,  taught  both  boys 
and  girls  on  lower  Palace  avenue.  During  the  few  years  before 
the  coming  of  Governor  Martinez  from  Mexico,  in  1844,  there  was 
at  least  a  semblance  of  a  public  school,  with  Serafin  Ramirez,  Vi- 
cente Trancosa,  and  Nicolas  Quintana  teaching  at  various  times ; 
but  the  funds  for  the  purpose  were  scanty  and  precarious. 

Governor  Martinez,  full  of  energy,  brought  two  new  teachers, 
Edward  Papy,  an  Englishman,  from  the  ''States,"  and  Francisco 
Gonzales,  from  Mexico,  which  gave  quite  an  impetus  to  educa- 
tional matters  for  a  short  time.  But  the  result  or  lack  of  result' 
of  all  the  efforts  made,  only  led  to  the  condition  of  matters  so 
graphically  described  by  Governor  Vigil  in  his  message  to  the  first 
New  Mexico  legislature,  in  1847.  He  says :  "There  is  at  present 
but  one  public  school  in  the  Territory,  that  located  in  the  city  of 
Santa  Fe,  and  supported  by  funds  of  the  county,  which  are  in- 
sufficient to  employ  more  than  one  teacher. ' ' 

The  United  States  government  did  nothing  whatever  to  improve 
conditions  as  it  has  since  done  in  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines, 


254  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  educational  matters  dragged  miserably  for  years,  at  least  so 
far  as  public  education  went. 

The  first  English  school  in  Santa  Fe  was  opened  on  August 
28,  1848,  by  J.  W.  Dunn,  whose  advertisement  appears  in  the 
Santa  Fe  Republican  as  ''Classical  and  High  School."  In  July, 
1849,  Rev.  Henry  W.  Reed,  a  Baptist  missionary,  tried  a  similar 
experiment,  in  which  Mrs.  Reed  assisted,  and  both  boys  and  girls 
were  received.  Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Bishop  Lamy,  in  the 
fall  of  1851,  a  Frenchman  named  Noel  opened  a  school,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  bishop,  in  the  house  south  of  the  church  of  St. 
Francis.  The  first  English  school,  exclusively  for  girls,  was  estab- 
lished in  1852  by  Mrs.  Howe,  the  wife  of  an  army  officer,  and 
this  attracted  the  attendance  of  the  daughters  of  some  of  the 
most  prominent  families  in  the  territory,  including  the  Pereas 
and  the  Chaveses. 

Almost  at  the  same  time.  Bishop  Lamy  succeeded  in  establish* 
ing  an  educational  institution  for  girls  in  the  same  city.  From 
the  time  of  his  arrival  in  the  territory  this  had  been  his  ardent 
desire,  but  it  was  only  after  much  difficulty  that  he  succeeded  in 
inducing  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  to  send,  a  sufficient  number  of 
their  order  to  New  Mexico  to  establish  the  institution.  On  June 
27,  1852,  six  of  the  sisters  left  their  home  in  Kentuckj--  and  pro- 
ceeded on  the  long  journey  across  the  plains  for  this  purpose. 
On  the  route  they  became  victims  of  attacks  from  cholera,  which 
was  then  raging  throughout  the  country,  and  Mother  Matilda, 
the  Superior,  died  on  the  steamboat  ''Kansas,"  on  which  they 
were  ascending  the  Missouri  river  to  Independence.  Another  of 
the  sisters  was  forced  to  return,  but  four  of  them  succeeded  in 
arriving  at  Santa  Fe  on  the  26th  of  September,  and  opened  their 
school  on  New  Year's  Day,  1853,  under  the  title  of  the  Convent 
of  Our  Lady  of  Light,  with  ten  boarders  and  three  day  scholars. 
From  this  humble  beginning  their  educational  influence  on  the 
girls  of  New  Mexico  has  extended  as  the  years  have  passed.  In 
1863,  three  sisters  founded  a  school  at  Taos.  A  year  later,  they 
opened  establishments  in  Mora  and  in  Denver,  and  continued  to 
extend  the  number  of  their  institutions  by  going  to  Las  Vegas  in 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS  255 

1869,  Las  Cruces  in  1870,  Bernalillo  in  1875,  and  more  recently 
at  other  points. 

In  order  to  secure  equal  facilities  for  the  boys  of  New  Mexico, 
Bishop  Lamy  persuaded  the  Christian  Brothers  to  come  to  the 
territory,  where  they  opened  St.  Michael's  college  at  Santa  Fe 
in  1859,  and  besides  affording  an  education  at  that  central  point 
to  more  than  a  generation  of  the  youth  of  New  Mexico,  they  ex- 
tended the  sphere  of  their  usefulness  to  Mora,  Bernalillo,  Las 
Vegas,  Socorro,  and  other  points.  During  almost  all  of  this 
period  they  were  under  the  charge  of  Brother  Botulph,  whose 
educational  labor  of  love  finds  its  reward  in  the  good  influence 
which  he  has  exerted.  In  1875,  the  Jesuits  opened  a  college  at 
Las  Vegas,  which  was  very  successful  until  removed  to  Denver, 
and  they  have  since  added  new  fields  for  their  educational  ac- 
tivity at  "Watrous,  Albuquerque,  etc. 

The  other  religious  bodies  were  not  idle.  In  1870,  Rev.  J.  A. 
Annin,  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  established  a  school  at  Las 
Vegas.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Presbyterian  educational 
weric  which  has  since  become  very  extensive  in  New  Mexico. 

In  1871,  Rev.  Thomas  Harwood  commenced  his  mission  school 
at  La  Junta  (Watrous),  and  for  over  forty  years  has  been  the 
head  of  the  IMethodist  educational  work  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try and  has  seen  it  increase  to  large  proportions. 

In  1878,  in  view  of  the  expected  arrival  of  the  railroad  connect- 
ing New  Mexico  with  the  east,  and  the  influx  of  eastern  popula- 
tion, the  attention  of  the  New  West  Educational  Commission 
was  attracted  to  this  territory,  and  on  July  4,  1878,  Santa  Fe 
Academy  was  incorporated,  to  be  carried  on  as  a  portion  of  their 
work.  A  year  later  a  similar  academy  was  organized  in  Las 
Vegas,  on  July  14,  and  shortly  thereafter  the  third  was  added  at 
Albuquerque.  All  of  these  did  excellent  educational  work  which 
only  ceased  when  public  educational  institutions  made  its  con- 
tinuance unnecessary.  In  1881,  the  Educational  Association  of 
New  Mexico  was  organized  to  continue  and  amplify  the  work  done 
by  the  Santa  Fe  academy,  and  in  the  same  year  the  University  of 
New  Mexico,  at  Santa  Fe,  was  incorporated,  to  prosecute  in  an 


256  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


extended  manner  the  work  then  carried  on  by  the  New  West  Com- 
mission, and  W  hi  tin  Hall  at  Santa  Fe  was  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$15,000  as  the  center  of  its  work.  Other  private  and  denomina- 
tional institutions  added  their  educational  facilities  within  the 
first  few  years  after  the  coming  of  the  railroad;  but  the  public 
school  system  was  still  unimportant  as  an  educational  force. 

The  people  were  unaccustomed  to  any  direct  tax  for  such  pur- 
poses, and  at  best  their  means  were  small. 

The  legislature,  from  time  to  time,  passed  acts  intended  to  im- 
prove the  situation,  but  without  any  actual  result.  When  the 
question  of  establishing  public  schools  to  be  supported  by  a  gen- 
eral tax  was  first  submitted  to  the  people  in  1855  the  remarkable 
result  was  a  vote  of  37  in  favor  and  5,016  opposed!  Really 
effective  measures  to  put  a  modern  public  school  system  in  opera- 
tion always  met  influential  opposition.  In  1876  such  a  bill  passed 
the  Council,  but  was  defeated  in  the  House  by  four  majority.  A 
similar  measure  was  likewise  defeated  in  1878  and  1880.  Even  as 
late  as  1889  the  opponents  of  public  schools  succeeded  in  killing 
the  ''Kistler  Bill."  In  connection  with  this  long  struggle  for 
free  public  non-sectarian  education,  the  services  of  Secretary 
William  G.  Ritch  should  never  be  forgotten.  His  indefatigable 
zeal  and  courage  had  much  to  do  with  the  final  success. 

It  was  not  until  the  legislative  session  of  1891  that  what  may  be 
called  a  comprehensive,  modern,  public  school  system  was  inau- 
gurated. Governor  Prince  made  that  subject  the  salient  point 
in  his  biennial  message  to  the  legislature,  with  a  powerful  ap- 
peal for  immediate  action.  On  February  12  of  that  year,  a  law 
was  passed  ''Establishing  common  schools  in  the  Territory  of 
New  Mexico  and  creating  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction, ' '  which  marked  a  new  era  in  the  educational  history 
of  the  territory,  so  far  as  common  schools  were  concerned.  Dur- 
ing the  two  preceding  years,  three  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
tion had  been  established  —  the  Territorial  University  at  Albu- 
querque, the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  at  Mesilla 
Park  near  Las  Cruces,  and  the  School  of  Mines  at  Socorro.  For 
each  of  these  substantial  buildings  were  erected,  and  although 


% 


CHUECHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS  257 

their  first  years  were  necessarily  ' '  a  day  of  small  things, ' '  yet  the 
foundations  were  well  laid  and  they  have  constantly  increased 
in  educational  character  and  practical  usefulness  as  time  has 
passed. 

The  act  of  1891  provided  for  a  territorial  Board  of  Education, 
which  included  the  governor  and  the  presidents  of  some  of  the 
higher  institutions,  and  for  a  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, with  powers  which  gave  him  the  actual  oversight  of  all  the 
public  schools  in  the  territory,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor. 
The  wise  appointment  of  Amado  Chaves  to  that  position  smoothed 
the  way  for  the  successful  introduction  of  the  new  system  and 
secured  its  favorable  reception.  From  that  time  until  now,  edu- 
cational matters  in  New  Mexico  have  progressed  with  great 
rapidity,  the  number  of  public  schools,  which  was  about  500  in 
1891,  having  doubled  and  reached  the  full  figure  of  1 ,000  in  1912. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  which  has  been  used  in  the  east  and 
in  congressional  debates,  as  a  reproach  to  New  Mexico,  has  been 
rapidly  reduced,  showing  a  ratio  of  improvement  unprecedented 
in  its  extent.  Sixty  thousand  scholars  are  enrolled  and  40,000 
in  actual  attendance.  The  number  of  teachers,  which  was  but 
552  in  1891,  has  increased  to  1,548;  the  great  gain  being  in  the 
number  of  women,  which  in  the  21  years  has  risen  from  179  to 
1,043.  The  value  of  public  school  property  is  almost  a  million 
dollars;  that  of  the  state  institutions  over  a  million;  of  private 
schools  about  $400,000 ;  and  of  the  Indian  schools  over  $400,000. 

In  1891,  the  Goss  Military  Institute  at  Roswell  was  given  an 
official  character  and  afterwards  became  a  regular  territorial 
institution.  The  first  normal  school  of  any  kind  in  New  Mexico 
was  held  in  1891  in  Las  Vegas,  on  a  call  made  by  the  county 
superintendent  asking  the  teachers  of  San  Miguel  county  to  meet 
for  mutual  improvement  and  instruction.  It  commenced  as  a 
teachers'  institute,  but  was  continued  for  almost  a  month,  from 
June  22  to  July  17,  as  a  normal  school,  with  very  encouraging 
success;  and,  from  this  arose,  almost  immediately  after,  the  es- 
tablishment by  the  legislature  of  two  territorial  normal  institu- 
tions, one  at  Las  Yegas  and  one  at  Silver  City.     In  1909  the 


17 


258  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Spanish-American  Normal  School  was  established  at  El  Rito, 
for  the  important  purpose  of  preparing  native  New  Mexican 
teachers  for  the  great  number  of  rural  schools  in  the  state.  In 
recent  years,  the  educational  work  has  progressed  very  rapidly, 
not  only  in  the  way  of  general  and  public  instruction,  but 
through  a  multitude  of  denominational  and  private  schools  which 
are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  New  Mexico. 

Meanwhile,  the  education  of  the  Indians  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  is  still  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  school 
work  in  the  state.  The  University  at  Santa  Fe  took  up  this 
work  in  1886  and  established  for  that  specific  purpose  an  institu- 
tion known  as  the  Ramona  School  in  memory  of  Helen  Hunt 
Jackson.  This  was  successfully  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years, 
until  1894,  when  private  efforts  were  superseded  by  the  govern- 
ment Indian  schools,  established  at  Santa  Fe  and  Albuquerque. 
These  institutions  have  increased  in  their  capacity  and  improved 
by  experience  in  their  methods,  year  by  year,  and  the  instruction 
given  to  the  pupils  both  in  the  ordinary  branches  and  in  indus- 
trial education  has  reached  a  very  high  grade.  There  are  also 
local  government  and  denominational  schools  for  the  Indians  at 
a  number  of  points  in  the  state. 


Newspapers 


The  first  printing  press  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from 
Mexico  in  the  year  1834,  and  the  Abreu  family  is  credited  with 
that  piece  of  enterprise. 

One  of  the  first  specimens  of  printing  executed  in  New  Mexico 
was  the  proclamation  of  Governor  Perez,  greeting  his  fellow 
citizens.  This  is  dated  June  26,  1835,  thirty-four  days  after  his 
arrival,  and  at  the  bottom  is  the  publication  note  "Imprenta  de 


260  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Ramon  Abreu,  a  cargo  de  Jesus  Maria  Baca"  (Printing  office  of 
Ramon  Abreu  in  charge  of  Jesus  Maria  Baca).  Mr.  Baca  ap- 
pears to  have  followed  the  fortunes  of  that  press  for  many  years. 
He  was  with  it  in  Taos,  and  returned  to  Santa  Fe  when  the  press 
was  restored  to  the  capital. 

The  manifesto  of  Governor  Martinez  in  1844  is  inscribed  ' '  Im- 
prenta  particular  a  cargo  of  J.  M.  B."  (Private  printing  office  in 
charge  of  J.  M.  B.). 

The  first  newspaper  printed  in  New  Mexico  was  El  Crepusculo 
(The  Dawn),  which  was  published  by  Padre  Martinez  in  Taos, 
commencing  November  29,  1835.  It  was  the  size  of  foolscap 
paper,  and  but  four  numbers  were  issued,  as  it  failed  to  pay  ex- 
penses. Padre  Martinez  printed  a  number  of  small  books  of  in- 
struction while  the  press  remained  in  Taos. 

The  first  paper  published  in  Santa  Fe  was  La  Verdad,  shortly 
after  1840.  It  was  the  official  organ,  and  the  matter  contained  in 
it  was  mainly  of  an  official  character.  It  was  finally  discontinued 
about  1843. 

On  June  28,  1845,  as  a  successor  to  La  Yerdad,  appeared  El 
Payo  de  Nuevo  Mejico.  The  printing  office  was  now  an  official 
affair,  as  the  inscription  on  it  is  "  Imprenta  del  Gobierno  a  cargo 
deJ.M.  B.'* 

The  first  newspaper  wholly  or  partly  in  English  was  the  Santa 
Fe  BepuMican,  which  first  appeared  on  September  4,  1847.  It 
was  a  well  printed  four  page  weekly,  two  pages  in  English  and 
two  in  Spanish.  Hovey  and  Davies  were  the  publishers,  and 
G.  R.  Gibson  the  editor.  The  file  belonging  to  the  Historical 
Society  begins  with  No.  5,  October  9,  1847.  In  December,  Mr. 
Gibson  ceased  to  be  editor  and  thereafter  the  name  of  Oliver  P. 
Hovey  appears. 

In  1849,  on  December  1,  the  New  Mexican  appeared  at  Santa 
Fe,  published  by  Davies  and  Jones.  The  present  Ncv)  Mexican 
commenced  publication  January  22,  1863,  Charles  Leib  being  the 
founder.  Within  a  year  it  was  sold  to  Charles  P.  Clever  and  by 
him  to  W.  H.  Manderfield.  In  IMay,  1864,  Mr.  Manderfield 
formed  a  partnership  with  Thomas  Tucker,  and  their  firm  con- 


CHURCHES  —  SCHOOLS  —  NEWSPAPERS  261 

tinued  to  publish  the  Neiu  Mexican  until  1880,  when  it  was  sold 
to  a  company  representing  the  A.,  T.  &  S.  F.  railroad,  Charles  W. 
Greene  "being  editor.  Through  a  long  career  it  has  always  re- 
tained a  commanding  position  in  New  Mexican  affairs,  and  par- 
ticularly under  Colonel  Frost  was  a  political  power.  It  became  a 
daily  in  1868. 

Among  the  early  papers  were  : 

The  Mesilla  Ncavs,  issued  in  1860. 

The  Amigo  del  Pais  and  the  Gaceta,  in  Santa  Pe,  in  the  early 
*' fifties.'' 

El  Democrata,  at  Santa  Fe,  by  Miguel  Pino,  in  1859. 

The  New  Mexico  Press,  at  Albuquerque,  edited  by  Hezekiah 
S.  Johnson,  in  1863. 

The  Elizabethtown  Lantern  in  1868. 

The  Advertiser,  at  Las  Vegas  in  1870,  by  0.  V.  Aoy,  who  sub- 
sequently had  papers  at  Carbonateville  and  Red  River. 

The  Mail,  at  Las  Vegas,  also  in  1870.  (This  subsequently  be- 
came the  Gazette  under  the  Kooglers.) 

Mining  Life,  at  Silver  City  in  1873. 

Eco  del  liio  Grande,  at  lias  Cruces  in  1874. 

With  the  coming  of  the  railroad,  newspapers  sprang  up  like 
mushrooms,  and  many  perished  almost  as  rapidly.  They  did  good 
work,  however,  in  the  development  of  the  country. 

In  1850  there  were  but  two  newspapers  in  New  Mexico,  but 
they  had  the  very  substantial  circulation  of  1,150.  In  1870  the 
number  had  increased  to  five,  with  a  circulation  of  1,525.  In 
1880  there  were  eighteen,  with  a  circulation  of  6,355,  and  in  1885 
there  were  thirty-nine  papers,  of  which  eight  were  dailies,  a 
larger  number  of  the  latter  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  later. 

In  those  earlier  days  there  were  papers  published  in  many 
places  which  have  none  now  or  are  almost  forgotten,  as  Bernalillo, 
Cimarron,  Mesilla,  Lake  Valley,  Georgetown,  White  Oaks,  Tip- 
tonville,  Golden,  San  Pedro,  San  Lorenzo,  Mineral  Hill,  Cerrillos, 
Carbonateville,  and  Elizabethtown. 

To  attempt  a  history  of  all  the  papers  that  have  arisen  within 
the  last  25  years  would  be  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work. 


262  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

With  the  settlement  of  the  eastern  counties  the  number  has  great- 
ly increased,  until,  at  the  opening  of  statehood,  New  Mexico  has 
a  list  of  no  less  than  125  periodicals,  of  which  about  100  are 
printed  in  English  and  25  in  Spanish.  Corresponding  with  the 
increasing  number,  has  been  the  general  improvement  in  the 
papers  as  to  size,  typography,  and  the  character  of  the  literary 
work.  New  Mexico  has  no  reason  to  fear  a  comparison  with  any 
of  its  neighbors  as  to  the  excellence  and  high  character  of  its 
press. 


CHAPTEK  XXV 

United  States  Officials 

The  following  list  of  governors  includes  all  those  who  were 
appointed  to  that  position  while  New  Mexico  was  a  territory.  In 
some  similar  lists  the  names  of  secretaries  who  have  served  as 
governor  for  a  considerable  period  are  included.  But  it  seemed 
difficult  to  draw  the  line  of  selection.  Under  the  Organic  Act,  the 
secretary  becomes  acting-governor  the  moment  the  governor 
leaves  the  territory.  In  accordance  with  this  provision,  every 
secretary  has  acted  as  governor,  more  or  less;  Secretaries  Eitch, 
Amy,  and  Davis,  probably  longer  than  others.  The  only  proper 
course,  therefore,  was  to  insert  a  full  list  of  secretaries. 

The  list  of  chief  justices  shows  the  heads  of  the  judiciary  of 
New  Mexico,  through  the  whole  territorial  period. 

A  full  list  of  delegates  in  Congress  is  also  presented. 


Governors  Under  Military  Appointment 

1846  August  19,  Stephen  W.  Kearny. 

1846  September   22,    Charles   Bent    (assassinated  January   17, 
1847). 

1847  January  17,  Donaciano  Vigil,  acting. 

1847  December  17,  Donaciano  Vigil. 

1848  October  11,  J.  M.  Washington,  Commandant  of  the  Depart- 
ment. 

1849  John  Munroe,  Commandant  of  the  Department. 


264  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Civil  Governors  Under  the  Organic  Act 

(March  3,  1851) 

1851  James  S.  Calhoun. 

1852  William  Carr  Lane. 

1853  David  Meriwether. 
1857  Abraham  Rencher. 
1861  Henry  Connelly. 
1866  Robert  B.  Mitchell. 
1869  William  A.  Pile. 
1871  Marsh  Giddings. 
1875  Samuel  B.  Axtell. 
1878  Lewis  Wallace. 
1881  Lionel  A.  Sheldon. 
1885  Edmund  G.  Ross. 
1889  L.  Bradford  Prince. 
1893  William  T.  Thornton. 
1897  Miguel  A.  Otero. 

1906  Herbert  J.  Hagerman. 

1907  George  Curry. 

1910  William  J.  Mills  till  Jan.  15,  1912. 


Secretaries 


1846  Donaciano  Vigil  (Appointed  by  General 
Kearny) . 

1848  Donaciano  Vigil  (Appointed  by  Col.  Wash- 
ington). 

1851  Hugh  N.  Smith  (not  confirmed). 

1851  William  S.  Allen. 

1852  John  Greiner. 

1853  William  S.  Messervy. 

1854  W.  W.  H.  Davis. 


UNITED  STATES  OFFICIALS  265 

1857  A.  M.  Jackson. 

1861  Miguel  A.  OteroP"*'^*^^*^  Ubt^J 

1861  James  H.  Holmes. 

1862  W.  F.  M.  Amy. 
1867  H.  H.  Heath. 

1871  Henry  Wetter. 

1872  W.  F.  M.  Arny. 

1873  William  G.  Ritch. 

1884  Samuel  A.  Losch. 

1885  George  W.  Lane. 
1889  B.  M.  Thomas. 

1892  Silas  Alexander. 

1893  Lorion  Miller. 
1897  George  H.  Wallace. 
1901  James  W.  Raynolds. 
1907  Nathan  Jaffa  to  1912. 


Chief  Justices 


1846  Joab  Houghton. 
1851  Grafton  Baker. 
1853  J.  J.  Deavenport. 
1858  Kirby  Benedict. 
1866  John  P.  Slough. 

1868  John  S.  Watts. 

1869  Joseph  G.  Palen. 
1876  Henry  L.  Waldo. 

1878  Charles  McCandless. 

1879  L.  Bradford  Prince. 
1882  Samuel  B.  Axtell. 
1885  William  A.  Vincent. 
1885  Elisha  V.  Long. 
1889  James  O'Brien. 


266  HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

1893  Thomas  Smith. 
1898  William  J.  Mills. 
1910  William  H.  Pope. 


Delegates  in  Congress 


Congress 

Date 

Name 

31st 

1849-51 

William  S.  Messervy. 

32d 

1851-53 

R.  H.  Weightman. 

33d 

1853-55 

Jose  Manuel  Gallegos. 

34th,  35th  and  36th 

1855-61 

Miguel  A.  Otero. 

37th 

1861-63 

John  S.  Watts. 

38th 

1863-65 

Francisco  Perea. 

39th  and  40th 

1865-69 

J.  Francisco  Chaves. 

41st 

1869-71 

Charles  P.  Clever. 

Contested  by  J.  F. 

Chaves,  who 

was  seated  at  end  of  se 

42d 

1871-73 

Jose  Manuel  Gallegos. 

43d  and  44th 

1873-77 

Stephen  B.  Elkins. 

45th 

1877-79 

Trinidad  Romero. 

46th 

1879-81 

Mariano  S.  Otero. 

47th 

1881-83 

Tranquilino  Luna. 

48th 

1883-85 

F.  A.  Manzanares. 

49th  to  53d 

1885-95 

Antonio  Joseph. 

54th 

1895-97 

Thomas  B.  Catron. 

55th 

1897-99 

H.  B.  Fergusson. 

56th 

1899-1901 

Pedro  Perea. 

57th  and  58th 

1901-05 

Bernard  S.  Rodey. 

59th  to  62d 

1905-12 

William  H.  Andrews. 

■.■''^- 


Sfet|-firsl  €0ttgrtss  0f  t|e  fflirilti  ^States  of  America; 

and  h^  »t  tbe  City  of  Wsshingtan  on  Mooday,  the  sixth  day  of  IXx^mlirr,  one 
thottnad  nine  hundred  and  nine. 


AN   ACT 

To  enable  tiie  people  of  New  Mexico  to  form  a  constitution  and  8lat«< 
government  and  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing  with  tho 
original  States;  and  to  enable  the  people  of  Arizona  to  fonn  a  constitution 
and  state  government  and  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  original  States. 


Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  Houae  of  Repreientativee  of  the  f'nitnl 
States  of  America  in  Oongreaa  aaaembled,  That  the  qualified  electors  of  lh« 
Territory  of  New  Mexico  are  hereby  authorizod  to  vote  for  and  choose  delegates  t<» 
form  a  constitutional  convention  for  said  Territory  for  the  purpose  of  framing 
a  TOiustitution  for  the  proposed  State  of  liw^  Mexico.  Said  convention  shall 
consist  of  one  hundred  delegates;  and  the  governor,  chief  justice,  and  secretary 
of  add  Territory  shall  apportion  the  delegates  to  be  thus  selected,  as  neariy  as 
may  be,  equitably  amoiig  tbe  several  counties  thereof  in  accordance  with  the 
voting  populatioUt  a«  shown  by  the  vote  cast  at  tbe  etootion  for  Delegate  in 
Congress  in  said  Temtory  in  nineteen  bundiied  and  eigfal:  Provided,  That  in 
tbe  event  that  any  new  counties  shall  have  been  added  aftM  said  election,  the 
appoitiomn^nt  for  delegates  shall  be  made  proportionate  to  tbe  vote  cast  within 
the  vaiiota  jHrediwta  contained  in  tl>e  area  of  such  now  counties  so  creat^MJ, 
and  the  jEaopwtiboata  number  c^  delt^rntee  so  apportioned  shall  be  deducted 
from  Ute  erigina)  coanties  out  of  which  nieh  counUes  shall  have  been  crcaUwl. 

'  The  fBVttfiMr  otwexd  TerritiHysh^,  within  thirty  dajm  after  the  approval 
ci  thh  Ac^  1^  ]^PM!iaisation,  in  which  the  aforesaid  apportionment  of  delegates 
to  tiie  ee&«Hitieii  id^  be  fully  speci&d  vad  aopounoed,  <mler  an  election  (^ 
ibe  iklefaiM  tlbraHiid  on  a  day  deaigsated  by  Mm  in  said  pnclaination,  not 
mMut  &um  ttaj  tua  l^er  than  ninel^  iag«  after  tbe  approval  of  this  Act. 
Sii&  riedietBt  Isr  <M«g:iUes  shall  be  held  txdimmiooUd,  the  n/bmm  made,  and 
Hkm  e»tt€e^lea  ef  penons  elected  te  watk  oattf«iitiQ»  iamied,  «c  Beariy  a*  majr 
1n»»  in  tibe  same Ba*nii» as  Is  preeeribed  by  ^e  tmnetmid  Tenitosy  regidatiof 
f^wttom  i&mtin  of  Bwokbeii  eT  tk»  lepriature  exbting  at  tbe  time  «f  tiie  last 


FIRST  PAGE   OF   STATEHOOD  ENABLING   ACT 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

State  Organization 

1912 

The  state  government  was  put  in  actual  operation  by  the  in- 
auguration of  the  governor,  on  January  15,  1912.  The  other 
elected  officials  of  the  state  assumed  office  at  various  times,  short- 
ly before  or  after  that  date. 

The  Legislature  met  and  organized  on  March  11,  1912,  and 
continued  in  session  until  June  8.  During  the  session  of  the 
Senate  a  number  of  the  appointive  officials  were  appointed  and 
confirmed ;  some  others  remaining  in  office  under  their  previous 
appointments,  and  not  yet  being  superseded. 

The  following  elective,  appointive  and  legislative  officials  were 
those  holding  their  respective  positions  on  July  1 ,  1912 : 

Elected  Officials 

STATE 

Governor  William  C.  McDonald 

Lieutenant  Governor  Esequiel  C.  de  Baca 

Secretary  of  State  Antonio  Lucero 

Attorney  General  Frank  "W.  Clancy 

Auditor  William  G.  Sargent 

Treasurer  Owen  N.  Marron 

Commissioner  of  Public  Lands  Robert  P.  Ervien 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  Alvan  N.  White 

Corporation  Commissioner  Hugh  H.  Williams 

Corporation  Commissioner  Matthew  S.  Groves 

Corporation  Commissioner  Oscar  L.  Owen 


STATE  ORaANIZATION 


269 


Elected  Officials 


CONGRESSIONAL 

U.    S. 

Senators 

Thomas  B.  Catron 

Santa  Fe 

Albert  B.  Fall 

Three  Rivers 

Representatives 

George  Curry 

Tnlarosa 

H.  B.  Fergusson 

Albuquerque 

Elected  Officials 

JUDICIAL 

Supreme  Court,  Chief  Justice 

Clarence  J.  Roberts 

Supreme  Court 

Richard  H.  Hanna 

Supreme  Court 

Frank  W.  Parker 

District  Court,  1st  District 

Edmund  C.  Abbott 

District   Court,   2d  District 

Herbert  F.  Raynolds 

District   Court,   3d  District 

E.  L.  Medler 

District  Court,  4th  District 

David  J.  Leahy 

District  Court,  5th  District 

John  T.  McCluro 

District  Court,  6th  District 

Colin  Neblett 

District  Court,  7th  District 

Merritt  C.  Mechem 

District  Court,  8th  District 

Thomas  D.  Leib 

Appointed  State  Officials 

Traveling  Auditor 

Howell  Earnest 

1912 

State  Engineer 

James  A.  French 

1912 

Insurance  Superintendent 

Jacobo  Chavez               holds  over 

Librarian 

Lola  C.  Armijo              holds  over 

Adjutant  General 

A.  S.  Brooks 

1912 

Superintendent  of  l*enitentiary  John  B.  McManus 

1912 

Game  and  Fish  Warden 

Trinidad  C.  de  Baca 

1912 

Mine  Inspector 

Joseph  E.  Sheridan       holds  over 

Coal  Oil  Inspector 

Frank  Lopez 

1912 

Captain  Mounted  Police 

Fred  Fornoif 

1912 

270 


HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


MEMBERS   OF   THE   FIRST  STATE  LEGISLATURE   OF 
NEW  MEXICO 


State  Senate 

TERMS 

OP  state  senators  expire 

JANUARY,    1917 

District 

Name 

Residence 

1 

John  S.  Clark 

East  Las  Vegas 

2 

Juan  Navarro 

Mora 

3 

Louis  C.  Ufeld 

Las  Vegas 

4 

Thomas  D.  Burns 

Tierra  A  mar  ilia 

5 

Joseph  F.  Sulzer 

Albuquerque 

6 

Epimeriio  A.  Miera 

Cuba 

7 

Isaac  Barth 

Albuquerque 

8 

Edwin  0.  Crampton 

Raton 

9 

Eugenio  B.  Gall  egos 

Gallegos  " 

10 

Benjamin  F.  Pankey 

Lamy 

11 

Squire  Hartt,  Jr. 

Ranches  of  Taos 

12 

Boleslo  Romero 

Los  Lunas 

13 

Charles  J.  Laughren 

Deming 

14 

A.  C.  Abeytia 

Socorro 

15 

William  M.  McCoy 

Mountainair 

16 

Herbert  B.  Holt 

Las  Cruces 

17 

Gregory  Page 

Gallup 

18 

John  M.  Bowman 

Alamogordo 

19 

James  F.  Hinkle 

Roswell 

20 

Fred  F.  Doepp 

Carlsbad 

21 

A.  J.  Evans 

Portales 

22 

C.  H.  Alldredge 

Tucumcari 

23 

Thomas  J.  Mahiy 

Clovis 

24 

William  B,  Walton 

Silver  City 

STATE  ORGANIZATION 


271 


House  of  Representatives 

terms  op  state  representatives  expire  january,  1915 

Roman  L.  Baca,  Speaker 


District 

Name 

Residence 

1 

Zaearias  Padilla 

Los  Lunas 

1 

Miguel  E.  Baca 

Los  Lunas 

2 

Conrad  N.  Hilton 

San  Antonio 

2 

Thomas  Cooney 

MogoUon 

3 

Tomas  A.  Gurule 

Albuquerque 

3 

John  B.  Burg 

Albuquerque 

3 

Rafael  Garcia 

Albuquerque 

4 

Roman  li.  Baca 

Santa  Fe 

4 

Charles  C.  Catron 

Santa  Fe 

5 

Julian  Trujillo 

Chimayo 

5 

J.  P.  Lucero 

Lumber  ton 

6 

George  W.  Tripp 

East  Las  Vegas 

6 

Jose   G.   Lobato 

Tecolote 

6 

Francisco  Quintana 

Sapello 

7 

Bias  Sanchez 

Wagon  Mound 

7 

Remigio  Lopez 

Roy 

8 

J.  R.  Skidmore 

Raton 

& 

Manuel  C.  Martinez 

Ponil 

9 

Luis  R.  Montoya 

Taos 

9 

Manuel  Cordova 

Taos 

10 

Marcos  C.  de  Baca 

Bernalillo 

11 

Oscar  T.  Toombs 

Clayton 

11 

Juan  D.  Casados 

Clapham 

12 

James  W.  Chaves 

Willard 

13 

John  J.  Clancy 

Puerto  de  Luna 

14 

John  A.  Young 

Gallup 

14 

Duncan  McGillivray 

Crown  Point 

15 

W.  H.  H.  Llewellyn 

lias  Cruces 

15 

Presiliano  Moreno 

Las  Cruces 

16 

James  V.  Tully 

Glencoe 

17 

Chas.  P.  Downs 

Alamogordo 

272 


HISTOEY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


District 

Name 

Residence 

18 

Jas.  W.  Mullens 

Roswell 

18 

J.  T.  Evans 

Dexter 

18 

W.  E.  Rogers 

Roswell 

19 

Hugh  M.  Gage 

Hope 

19 

Florence  Love 

Loving 

20 

P.  E.  Carter 

Portales 

21 

S.  J.  Smith 

Mountainview 

22 

A.  S.  Goodell 

Silver  City 

22 

Robt.  H.  Boulware 

Silver  City 

23 

George  H.  Tucker 

Hillsboro 

24 

W.  H.  Chrisman 

Aztec 

25 

J.  W.  Campbell 

Tucumcari 

25 

John  L.  House 

House 

26 

W.  W.  Nichols 

Clovis 

27 

Antonio  D.  Vargas 

Ojo  Caliente 

28 

Tranquilino  Labadie 

Santa  Rosa 

29 

M.  P.  Manzanares 

Fort  Su7nner 

30 

W.  E   Blanchard 

Arabela 

/.  v.ro   'Hi/V  y^ 


